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Preface, x
Chapter One. Introduction, 2
What Is Geography, 4
Evolution of the Discipline, 4
Subfields of Geography, 6
Why Geography Matters, 6
Some Core Geographic Concepts, 8
Location, Direction, and Distance, 8
Size and Scale, 10
Physical and Cultural Attributes, 10
Attributes of Place Are Always Changing, 12
Interrelations between Places, 12
Place Similarity and Regions, 13
Geography's Themes and Standards, 18
Organization of This Book, 19
Key Words, 20
For Review & Consideration, 21
Selected References, 21
Chapter Two. Maps, 22
Maps as the Tools of Geography, 24
Locating Points on a Sphere, 24
The Grid System, 24
The Global Positioning System, 26
Map Projections, 28
Area, 28
Shape, 29
Distance, 29
Direction, 29
Scale, 31
Types of Maps, 32
Topographic Maps and Terrain Representation, 32
Thematic Maps and Data Representation, 35
Deceptive Practices, 39
Remote Sensing, 40
Aerial Photography, 40
Nonphotographic Imagery, 42
Geographic Information Systems, 45
The Geographic Database, 45
Applications of GIS, 46
Summary, 48
Key Words, 48
For Review & Consideration, 49
Selected References, 49
Part One. The Earth Science Tradition, 50
Chapter Three. Physical Geography Landforms, 52
Earth Materials, 54
Igneous Rocks, 54
Sedimentary Rocks, 54
Metamorphic Rocks, 55
Geologic Time, 56
Movements of the Continents, 56
Tectonic Forces, 60
Diastrophism, 60
Volcanism, 64
Gradational Processes, 69
Weathering, 69
Mass Movement, 70
Erosional Agents and Deposition, 70
Landform Regions, 80
Summary, 82
Key Words, 82
For Review & Consideration, 83
Selected References, 83
Chapter Four. Physical Geography: Weather and Climate, 84
Air Temperature, 86
Earth Inclination, 86
Reflection and Reradiation, 88
Lapse Rate, 88
Air Pressure and Winds, 92
Pressure Gradient Force, 92
The Convection System, 92
Land and Sea Breezes, 93
Mountain and Valley Breezes, 93
The Coriolis Effect, 94
The Frictional Effect, 94
The Global Air-Circulation Pattern, 94
Ocean Currents, 96
Moisture in the Atmosphere, 97
Types of Precipitation, 99
Storms, 101
Climate, Soils, and Vegetation, 106
Soils and Climate, 106
Natural Vegetation and Climate, 108
Climate Regions, 111
Tropical Climates, 111
Dryland Climates, 117
Humid Midlatitude Climates, 117
Subartic and Arctic Climates, 123
Highland Climates, 123
Climatic Change, 124
Long-Term Climatic Change, 124
Short-Term Climatic Change, 125
The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming, 125
Summary, 128
Key Words, 128
For Review & Consideration, 128
Selected References, 129
Chapter Five. The Geography of Natural Resources, 130
Resource Terminology, 132
Renewable Resources, 132
Nonrenewable Resources, 132
Resource Reserves, 133
Energy Resources and Industrialization, 134
Nonrenewable Energy Resources, 134
Crude Oil, 135
Coal, 137
Natural Gas, 140
Oil Shale and Tar Sands, 142
Nuclear Energy, 144
Renewable Energy Resources, 145
Biomass Fuels, 145
Hydropower, 146
Solar Energy, 148
Other Renewable Energy Resources, 150
Nonfuel Mineral Resources, 153
The Distribution of Nonfuel Minerals, 154
Copper: A Case Study, 156
Land Resources, 156
Soils, 156
Wetlands, 161
Forest Resources, 162
Resource Management, 169
Summary, 171
Key Words, 171
For Review & Consideration, 172
Selected References, 172
Part Two. The Culture-Environment Tradition, 174
Chapter Six. Population Geography, 176
Population Growth, 178
Some Population Definitions, 179
Birth Rates, 179
Fertility Rates, 181
Death Rates, 184
Population Pyramids, 187
Natural Increase and Doubling Times, 190
The Demographic Transition, 193
The Western Experience, 193
A Divided World Converging, 195
The Demographic Equation, 198
Population Relocation, 198
Immigration Impacts, 198
World Population Distribution, 200
Population Density, 202
Overpopulation, 203
Urbanization, 204
Population Data and Projections, 206
Population Data, 206
Population Projections, 207
Population Controls, 208
Population Prospects, 210
Momentum, 210
Aging, 210
Summary, 211
Key Words, 212
For Review & Consideration, 212
Selected References, 213
Chapter Seven. Cultural Geography, 214
Components of Culture, 216
Interaction of People and Environment, 218
Environments as Controls, 218
Human Impacts, 219
Subsystems of Culture, 220
The Technological Subsystem, 220
The Sociological Subsystem, 223
The Ideological Subsystem, 224
Culture Change, 227
Innovation, 227
Diffusion, 229
Acculturation, 230
Cultural Diversity, 233
Language, 233
Language Spread and Change, 236
Standard and Variant Languages, 239
Language and Culture, 241
Religion, 243
Classification and Distribution of Religions, 243
The Principal Religions, 247
Ethnicity, 257
Gender and Culture, 258
Other Aspects of Diversity, 262
Summary, 263
Key Words, 264
For Review & Consideration, 264
Selected References, 264
Chapter Eight. Spatial Interaction, 266
The Definition of Spatial Interaction, 268
Distance and Spatial Interaction, 268
Barriers to Interaction, 272
Spatial Interaction and Innovation, 272
Individual Activity Space, 272
Stage in Life, 273
Mobility, 273
Opportunities, 274
Diffusion and Innovation, 274
Contagious Diffusion, 275
Hierarchical Diffusion, 276
Spatial Interaction and Technology, 277
Automobiles, 277
Telecommunications, 278
Migration, 280
Types of Migration, 280
Incentives to Migrate, 281
Barriers to Migration, 287
Patterns of Migration, 287
Globalization, 291
Economic Integration, 291
Political Integration, 294
Cultural Integration, 295
Summary, 296
Key Words, 296
For Review & Consideration, 296
Selected References, 297
Chapter Nine. Political Geography, 298
National Political Systems, 300
States, Nations, and Nation-States, 301
Evolution of the Modern State, 302
Challenges to the State, 302
Geographic Characteristics of States, 304
Boundaries: The Limits of the State, 310
Centripetal Forces: Promoting State Cohesion, 315
Centrifugal Forces: Challenges to State Authority, 319
Cooperation Among States, 323
Supranationalism, 323
The United Nations and Its Agencies, 324
Regional Alliances, 326
Local and Regional Political Organization, 330
The Geography of Representation: The Districting Problem, 331
The Fragmentation of Political Power, 332
Summary, 335
Key Words, 336
For Review & Consideration, 336
Selected References, 337
Part Three. The Location Tradition, 338
Chapter Ten. Economic Geography, 340
The Classification of Economic Activity and Economies, 342
Categories of Activity, 343
Types of Economic Systems, 343
Stages of Development, 345
Primary Activities: Agriculture, 347
Subsistence Agriculture, 348
Expanding Crop Production, 352
Commercial Agriculture, 354
Other Primary Activities, 362
Fishing, 362
Forestry, 364
Mining and Quarrying, 364
Trade in Primary Products, 366
Secondary Activities: Manufacturing, 368
Industrial Locational Models, 369
Other Locational Considerations, 370
Transnational Corporations (TNCs), 374
World Manufacturing Patterns and Trends, 376
High-Tech Patterns, 378
Tertiary and Beyond, 380
Tertiary Services, 381
Beyond Tertiary, 383
Services in World Trade, 383
Summary, 386
Key Words, 386
For Review & Consideration, 387
Selected References, 387
Chapter Eleven. Urban Geography, 388
An Urbanizing World, 390
Origins and Evolution of Cities, 392
The Location of Urban Settlements, 393
The Economic Base, 394
Function of Cities, 396
Cities as Central Markets, 396
Cities as Centers of Production and Services, 396
Cities as Centers of Administration and Institutions, 398
Systems of Cities, 399
The Urban Hierarchy, 399
Rank-Size Relationships, 399
World Cities, 400
Inside the City, 400
Defining the City Today, 401
Patterns of Land Use, 402
Changes in Urban Form, 406
Social Areas of Cities, 412
Institutional Controls, 414
Global Urban Diversity, 416
Western European Cities, 416
Eastern European Cities, 416
Rapidly Growing Non-Western Cities, 419
Summary, 423
Keywords, 424
For Review and & Considerations, 424
Selected References, 424
Chapter Twelve. Human Impact on the Environment, 426
Ecosystems, 428
Impact on Water, 429
Availability of Water, 430
Modifications of Streams, 432
Water Quality, 434
Agricultural Sources of Water Pollution, 434
Other Sources of Water Pollution, 436
Controlling Water Pollution, 437
Impact on Air and Climate, 438
Air Pollutants, 438
Factors Affecting Air Pollution, 439
Acid Rain, 439
Photochemical Smog, 440
Depletion of the Ozone Layer, 443
Controlling Air Pollution, 444
Impact on Landforms, 445
Landforms Produced by Excavation, 445
Landforms Produced by Dumping, 446
Formation of Surface Depressions, 446
Impact on Plants and Animals, 448
Habitat Disruption, 448
Hunting and Commercial Exploitation, 449
Exotic Species, 450
Poisoning and Contamination, 452
Solid-Waste Disposal, 453
Municipal Waste, 453
Hazardous Waste, 458
Summary, 460
Key Words, 462
For Review & Consideration, 462
Selected References, 462
Part Four. The Area Analysis Tradition, 464
Chapter Thirteen. The Regional Concept, 466
The Nature of Regions, 468
The Structure of This Chapter, 470
Part I: Regions in the Earth Science Tradition, 470
Landforms as Regions, 470
Dynamic Regions in Weather and Climate, 471
Natural Resource Regions, 473
Part II: Regions in the Culture—Environment Tradition, 476
Population as Regional Focus, 476
Language as Region, 477
Mental Regions, 478
Political Regions, 479
Part III: Regions in the Locational Tradition, 481
Economic Regions, 481
Ecosystems as Regions, 485
Summary, 487
Key Words, 487
For Review & Consideration, 487
Selected References, 487
Appendix, 489
Appendix 1. Map Projections, 489
Appendix 2. 2005 World Population Data, 496
Glossary, 503
Index, 515

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