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Preface, xxvii
Chapter 1. The Science of Psychology, 1
THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2
Psychology as a Basic and Applied Science, 3
Robber's Cave and the Jigsaw Classroom, 3
The Goals of Psychology, 4
Psychology's Broad Scope: A Levels-of-Analysis Framework, 4
Mind-Body and Nature-Nurture Interactions, 5
PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOR, 6
Psychology's Intellectual Roots, 6
Early Schools: Structuralism and Functionalism, 7
The Psychodynamic Perspective: The Forces Within, 8
Psychoanalysis: Freud's Great Challenge, 8
Modern Psychodynamic Theory, 8
The Behavioral Perspective: The Power of the Environment, 9
Origins of the Behavioral Perspective, 9
Behaviorism, 9
Cognitive Behaviorism, 10
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Are the Students Lazy?, 10
The Humanistic Perspective: Self-Actualization and Positive Psychology, 10
The Cognitive Perspective: The Thinking Human, 11
Origins of the Cognitive Perspective, 11
Renewed Interest in the Mind, 12
The Modern Cognitive Perspective, 12
The Sociocultural Perspective: The Embedded Human, 13
Cultural Learning and Diversity, 13
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Love and Marriage in Eleven Cultures, 14
The Biological Perspective: The Brain, Genes, and Evolution, 15
Behavioral Neuroscience, 15
Behavior Genetics, 16
Evolutionary Psychology, 16
USING LEVELS OF ANALYSIS TO INTEGRATE THE PERSPECTIVES, 18
An Example: Understanding Depression, 18
Summary of Major Themes, 19
BENEATH THE SURFACE What Did You Expect?, 20
PSYCHOLOGY TODAY, 21
A Global Science and Profession, 21
Psychology and Public Policy, 22
Psychology and Your Life, 23
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE How to Enhance Your Academic Performance, 23
Chapter 2. Studying Behavior Scientifically, 27
SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES IN PSYCHOLOGY, 28
Scientific Attitudes, 29
Gathering Evidence: Steps in the Scientific Process, 29
Step 1: Identify a Question of Interest, 29
Step 2: Gather Information and Form Hypothesis, 29
Step 3: Test Hypothesis by Conducting Research, 29
Step 4: Analyze Data, Draw Conclusions, and Report Findings, 29
Step 5: Build a Body of Knowledge, 31
Two Approaches to Understanding Behavior, 31
Hindsight (After-the-Fact Understanding), 31
Understanding through Prediction, Control, and Theory Building, 32
Defining and Measuring Variables, 33
Self-Reports and Reports by Others, 33
Measures of Overt Behavior, 34
Psychological Tests, 35
Physiological Measures, 35
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH, 35
Ethical Standards in Human Research, 36
Ethical Standards in Animal Research, 37
METHODS OF RESEARCH, 37
Descriptive Research: Recording Events, 37
Case Studies: The Hmong Sudden Death Syndrome, 37
Naturalistic Observation: Bullies in the Schoolyard, 39
Survey Research: Adolescents' Exposure to Abuse and Violence, 40
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Should You Trust Internet and Pop Media Surveys?, 41
Correlational Research: Measuring Associations Between Events, 41
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Very Happy People, 42
Correlation Does Not Establish Causation, 43
The Correlation Coefficient, 43
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Does Eating Ice Cream Cause People to Drown?, 43
Correlation as a Basis for Prediction, 44
Experiments: Examining Cause and Effect, 45
Independent and Dependent Variables, 46
Experimental and Control Groups, 46
Two Basic Ways to Design an Experiment, 46
Manipulating Two Independent Variables: Effects of Cell-Phone Use and Traffic Density on Driving Performance, 47
THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF RESEARCH, 50
Confounding of Variables, 50
Placebo Effects, 50
Experimenter Expectancy Effects, 51
Replicating and Generalizing the Findings, 51
BENEATH THE SURFACE Science, Psychics, and the Paranormal, 52
ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA, 53
Being a Smart Consumer of Statistics, 53
Using Statistics to Describe Data, 54
Measures of Central Tendency, 54
Measures of Variability, 55
Using Statistics to Make Inferences, 55
Meta-Analysis: Combining the Results of Many Studies, 56
CRITICAL THINKING IN SCIENCE AND EVERYDAY LIFE, 56
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Evaluating Claims in Research and Everyday Life, 57
Chapter 3. Genes, Environment, and Behavior, 60
GENETIC INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR, 62
Chromosomes and Genes, 63
Dominant, Recessive, and Polygenic Effects, 64
The Human Genome, 64
A Genetic Map of the Brain, 64
Behavior Genetics, 65
Family, Adoption, and Twin Studies, 65
Heritability: Estimating Genetic Influence, 66
ADAPTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT: THE ROLE OF LEARNING, 67
How Do We Learn? The Search for Mechanisms, 67
Why Do We Learn? The Search for Functions, 68
Learning, Culture, and Evolution, 69
Shared and Unshared Environments, 69
BEHAVIOR GENETICS, INTELLIGENCE, AND PERSONALITY, 70
Genes, Environment, and Intelligence, 70
Heritability of Intelligence, 70
Environmental Determinants, 71
Personality Development, 72
Heritability of Personality, 72
Environment and Personality Development, 72
GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS, 73
How the Environment Can Influence Gene Expression, 73
How Genes Can Influence the Environment, 75
GENETIC MANIPULATION AND CONTROL, 76
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Thinking Critically about Genetic Screening, 77
EVOLUTION AND BEHAVIOR: INFLUENCES FROM THE DISTANT PAST, 78
Evolution of Adaptive Mechanisms, 79
Natural Selection, 79
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Natural Selection and Genetic Diseases, 81
Evolution and Human Nature, 81
Sexuality and Mate Preferences, 82
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Sex Differences in the Ideal Mate: Evolution or Social Roles?, 84
Evolutionary Approaches to Personality, 86
BENEATH THE SURFACE How Not to Think about Evolutionary Theory, 87
Chapter 4. The Brain and Behavior, 91
NEURONS, 93
The Electrical Activity of Neurons, 94
Nerve Impulses: The Action Potential, 94
It's All or Nothing, 95
The Myelin Sheath, 96
HOW NEURONS COMMUNICATE: SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION, 96
Neurotransmitters, 96
Specialized Neurotransmitter Systems, 97
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Understanding How Drugs Affect Your Brain, 99
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, 100
The Peripheral Nervous System, 100
The Somatic Nervous System, 101
The Autonomic Nervous System, 101
The Central Nervous System, 102
The Spinal Cord, 102
The Brain, 103
Unlocking the Secrets of the Brain, 103
THE HIERARCHICAL BRAIN: STRUCTURES AND BEHAVIORAL FUNCTIONS, 106
The Hindbrain, 106
The Brain Stem: Life-Support Systems, 106
The Cerebellum: Motor-Coordination Center, 107
The Midbrain, 107
The Reticular Formation: The Brain's Gatekeeper, 108
The Forebrain, 108
The Thalamus: The Brain's Sensory Switchboard, 108
The Hypothalamus: Motivation and Emotion, 108
The Limbic System: Memory, Emotion, and Goal-Directed Behavior, 109
The Cerebral Cortex: Crown of the Brain, 110
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Inside the Brain of a Killer, 113
HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION: THE LEFT AND RIGHT BRAINS, 115
The Split Brain: Dividing the Hemispheres, 115
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Two Minds in One Brain?, 116
PLASTICITY IN THE BRAIN: THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE AND THE RECOVERY OF FUNCTION, 117
How Experience Influences Brain Development, 118
Healing the Nervous System, 119
BENEATH THE SURFACE Do We Really Use Only Ten Percent of Our Brain Capacity?, 120
INTERACTIONS WITH THE ENDOCRINE AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS, 120
Interactions with the Endocrine System, 120
Interactions Involving the Immune System, 121
Chapter 5. Sensation and Perception, 125
SENSORY PROCESSES, 127
Stimulus Detection: The Absolute Threshold, 128
Signal Detection Theory, 128
Subliminal Stimuli: Can They Affect Behavior?, 129
BENEATH THE SURFACE Are Subliminal Self-Help Products Effective?, 129
The Difference Threshold, 130
Sensory Adaptation, 130
THE SENSORY SYSTEMS, 131
Vision, 132
The Human Eye, 132
Photoreceptors: The Rods and Cones, 132
Visual Transduction: From Light Waves to Nerve Impulses, 134
Brightness Vision and Dark Adaptation, 134
Color Vision, 135
Analysis and Reconstruction of Visual Scenes, 138
Audition, 139
Auditory Transduction: From Pressure Waves to Nerve Impulses, 141
Coding of Pitch and Loudness, 142
Sound Localization, 142
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Navigating in Fog: Professor Mayer's Topophone, 143
Hearing Loss, 143
Taste and Smell: The Chemical Senses, 144
Gustation: The Sense of Taste, 144
Olfaction: The Sense of Smell, 144
The Skin and Body Senses, 145
The Tactile Senses, 145
The Body Senses, 146
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Sensory Prosthetics: “Eyes” for the Blind, “Ears” for the Hearing Impaired, 147
PERCEPTION: THE CREATION OF EXPERIENCE, 150
Perception Is Selective: The Role of Attention, 151
Inattentional Blindness, 151
Environmental and Personal Factors in Attention, 151
Perceptions Have Organization and Structure, 152
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization, 152
Perception Involves Hypothesis Testing, 154
Perception Is Influenced by Expectations: Perceptual Sets, 154
Stimuli Are Recognizable Under Changing Conditions: Perceptual Constancies, 155
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Why Does That Rising Moon Look So Big?, 156
PERCEPTION OF DEPTH, DISTANCE, AND MOVEMENT, 157
Depth and Distance Perception, 157
Monocular Depth Cues, 157
Binocular Depth Cues, 158
Perception of Movement, 158
ILLUSIONS: FALSE PERCEPTUAL HYPOTHESES, 159
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Explain This Striking Illusion, 160
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Stalking a Deadly Illusion, 161
EXPERIENCE, CRITICAL PERIODS, AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT, 163
Cross-Cultural Research on Perception, 164
Critical Periods: The Role of Early Experience, 165
Restored Sensory Capacity, 166
Some Final Reflections, 167
Chapter 6. States of Consciousness, 169
THE PUZZLE OF CONSCIOUSNESS, 171
Characteristics of Consciousness, 171
Measuring States of Consciousness, 172
Levels of Consciousness, 172
The Freudian Viewpoint, 172
The Cognitive Viewpoint, 173
Unconscious Perception and Influence, 173
Visual Agnosia, 173
Blindsight, 174
Priming, 174
The Emotional Unconscious, 174
Why Do We Have Consciousness?, 174
The Neural Basis of Consciousness, 175
Windows to the Brain, 175
Consciousness as a Global Workspace, 176
CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: OUR DAILY BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS, 177
Keeping Time: Brain and Environment, 177
Early Birds and Night Owls, 177
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Early Birds, Climate, and Culture, 178
Environmental Disruptions of Circadian Rhythms, 178
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Outsmarting Jet Lag, Night-Work Disruptions, and Winter Depression, 179
SLEEP AND DREAMING, 180
Stages of Sleep, 180
Stage 1 through Stage 4, 181
REM Sleep, 181
Getting a Night's Sleep: From Brain to Culture, 182
How Much Do We Sleep?, 183
Do We Need Eight Hours of Nightly Sleep?, 184
Sleep Deprivation, 184
Why Do We Sleep?, 185
Sleep and Bodily Restoration, 185
Sleep as an Evolved Adaptation, 185
Sleep and Memory Consolidation, 185
Sleep Disorders, 186
Insomnia, 186
Narcolepsy, 187
REM-Sleep Behavior Disorder, 187
Sleepwalking, 188
Nightmares and Night Terrors, 188
Sleep Apnea, 188
The Nature of Dreams, 188
When Do We Dream?, 188
What Do We Dream About?, 189
Why Do We Dream?, 189
BENEATH THE SURFACE When Dreams Come True, 190
DRUG-INDUCED STATES, 193
Drugs and the Brain, 193
How Drugs Facilitate Synaptic Transmission, 193
How Drugs Inhibit Synaptic Transmission, 194
Drug Tolerance and Dependence, 194
Learning, Drug Tolerance, and Overdose, 195
Drug Addiction and Dependence, 195
Depressants, 196
Alcohol, 196
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Drinking and Driving: Decision Making in Altered States, 197
Barbiturates and Tranquilizers, 198
Stimulants, 198
Amphetamines, 198
Cocaine, 198
Ecstasy (MDMA), 199
Opiates, 200
Hallucinogens, 200
Marijuana, 200
Misconceptions about Marijuana, 200
From Genes to Culture: Determinants of Drug Effects, 201
Biological Factors, 201
Psychological Factors, 201
Environmental Factors, 202
HYPNOSIS, 203
The Scientific Study of Hypnosis, 203
Hypnotic Behaviors and Experiences, 203
Involuntary Control and Behaving against One's Will, 203
Amazing Feats, 204
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Hypnosis and Amazing Feats, 204
Pain Tolerance, 204
Hypnotic Amnesia, 204
Hypnosis, Memory Enhancement, and Eyewitness Testimony, 205
Theories of Hypnosis, 205
Dissociation Theories, 206
Social-Cognitive Theories, 206
The Hypnotized Brain, 207
Chapter 7. Learning: The Role of Experience, 210
ADAPTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT, 212
Learning as Personal Adaptation, 212
Habituation, 212
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: ASSOCIATING ONE STIMULUS WITH ANOTHER, 213
Pavlov's Pioneering Research, 213
Basic Principles, 214
Acquisition, 214
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery, 215
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Why Did Carol's Car Phobia Persist?, 216
Generalization and Discrimination, 216
Higher-Order Conditioning, 217
Applications of Classical Conditioning, 217
Acquiring and Overcoming Fear, 217
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Was the “Little Albert” Study Ethical?, 218
Attraction and Aversion, 218
Sickness and Health, 218
OPERANT CONDITIONING: LEARNING THROUGH CONSEQUENCES, 220
Thorndike's Law of Effect, 220
Skinner's Analysis of Operant Conditioning, 220
Distinguishing Operant from Classical Conditioning, 222
Antecedent Conditions: Identifying When to Respond, 222
Consequences: Determining How to Respond, 223
Positive Reinforcement, 223
Negative Reinforcement, 224
Operant Extinction, 224
Aversive Punishment, 225
BENEATH THE SURFACE Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child?, 225
Response Cost, 226
Immediate, Delayed, and Reciprocal Consequences, 227
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Can You Explain the “Supermarket Tantrum”?, 227
Shaping and Chaining: Taking One Step at a Time, 227
Generalization and Discrimination, 228
Schedules of Reinforcement, 229
Fixed-Ratio Schedule, 229
Variable-Ratio Schedule, 230
Fixed-Interval Schedule, 230
Variable-Interval Schedule, 230
Reinforcement Schedules, Learning, and Extinction, 230
Escape and Avoidance Conditioning, 231
Applications of Operant Conditioning, 232
Education and the Workplace, 232
Specialized Animal Training, 232
Modifying Problem Behaviors, 232
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Using Operant Principles to Modify Your Behavior, 234
CROSSROADS OF CONDITIONING, 236
Biological Constraints: Evolution and Preparedness, 236
Constraints on Classical Conditioning: Learned Taste Aversions, 236
Are We Biologically Prepared to Fear Certain Things?, 237
Constraints on Operant Conditioning: Animals That “Won't Shape Up”, 238
Cognition and Conditioning, 238
Early Challenges to Behaviorism: Insight and Cognitive Maps, 238
Cognition in Classical Conditioning, 240
Cognition in Operant Conditioning, 241
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: WHEN OTHERS SHOW THE WAY, 243
Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory, 243
The Modeling Process and Self-Efficacy, 243
Imitation of Aggression and Prosocial Behavior, 244
Applications of Observational Learning, 244
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Using Social-Cognitive Theory to Prevent AIDS: A National Experiment, 245
THE ADAPTIVE BRAIN, 246
Chapter 8. Memory, 250
MEMORY AS INFORMATION PROCESSING, 252
A Three-Stage Model, 252
Sensory Memory, 253
Working/Short-Term Memory, 253
Long-Term Memory, 255
ENCODING: ENTERING INFORMATION, 257
Effortful and Automatic Processing, 257
Levels of Processing: When Deeper Is Better, 257
Exposure and Rehearsal, 258
Organization and Imagery, 259
Hierarchies and Chunking, 259
Visual Imagery, 259
Other Mnemonic Devices, 260
How Prior Knowledge Shapes Encoding, 260
Schemas: Our Mental Organizers, 260
Schemas, Encoding, and Expertise, 260
Encoding and Exceptional Memory, 261
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Would Perfect Memory Be a Gift or a Curse?, 262
STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION, 262
Memory as a Network, 262
Associative Networks, 262
Neural Networks, 263
Types of Long-Term Memory, 264
Declarative and Procedural Memory, 264
Explicit and Implicit Memory, 265
RETRIEVAL: ACCESSING INFORMATION, 265
The Value of Multiple Cues, 266
The Value of Distinctiveness, 266
Arousal, Emotion, and Memory, 266
BENEATH THE SURFACE Do We Really Remember It Like It Was Yesterday?, 268
The Effects of Context, State, and Mood on Memory, 269
Context-Dependent Memory: Returning to the Scene, 269
State-Dependent Memory: Arousal, Drugs, and Mood, 270
FORGETTING, 271
The Course of Forgetting, 271
Why Do We Forget?, 272
Encoding Failure, 272
Decay of the Memory Trace, 273
Interference, 273
Motivated Forgetting, 274
Forgetting to Do Things: Prospective Memory, 274
Amnesia, 274
Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia, 274
Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease, 275
Infantile (Childhood) Amnesia, 276
MEMORY AS A CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS, 276
Memory Distortion and Schemas, 277
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Memory Illusions: Remembering Things That Never Occurred, 278
Misinformation Effects and Eyewitness Testimony, 279
Source Confusion, 280
The Child as Eyewitness, 280
Accuracy and Suggestibility, 280
True versus False Reports: Can Professionals Tell Them Apart?, 281
The Recovered Memory Controversy, 281
Culture and Memory Construction, 282
MEMORY AND THE BRAIN, 284
Where Are Memories Formed and Stored?, 284
Sensory and Working Memory, 284
Long-Term Memory, 285
How Are Memories Formed?, 286
Synaptic Change and Memory, 286
Long-Term Potentiation, 286
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Improving Memory and Academic Learning, 287
Chapter 9. Language and Thinking, 290
LANGUAGE, 291
Adaptive Functions of Language, 292
Properties of Language, 292
Language Is Symbolic and Structured, 292
Language Conveys Meaning, 293
Language Is Generative and Permits Displacement, 293
The Structure of Language, 293
Surface Structure and Deep Structure, 293
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Discerning Surface and Deep Structures of Language, 294
The Hierarchical Structure of Language, 294
Understanding and Producing Language, 294
The Role of Bottom-Up Processing, 295
The Role of Top-Down Processing, 295
Pragmatics: The Social Context of Language, 296
WHAT DO YOU THINK? The Sleeping Policeman, 297
Language Functions, the Brain, and Sex Differences, 297
Acquiring a First Language, 298
Biological Foundations, 298
Social Learning Processes, 298
Developmental Timetable and Sensitive Periods, 299
Can Animals Acquire Human Language?, 300
Bilingualism, 302
Does Bilingualism Affect Other Cognitive Abilities?, 302
BENEATH THE SURFACE Learning a Second Language: Is Earlier Better?, 303
The Bilingual Brain, 304
Linguistic Influences on Thinking, 305
THINKING, 307
Thought, Brain, and Mind, 307
Concepts and Propositions, 308
Reasoning, 309
Deductive Reasoning, 309
Inductive Reasoning, 309
Stumbling Blocks in Reasoning, 310
Problem Solving and Decision Making, 311
Steps in Problem Solving, 311
The Role of Problem-Solving Schemas, 312
Uncertainty, Heuristics, and Decision Making, 313
Confirmation Bias and Overconfidence, 315
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Guidelines for Creative Problem Solving, 316
Knowledge, Expertise, and Wisdom, 317
Acquiring Knowledge: Schemas and Scripts, 317
The Nature of Expertise, 318
Expert Schemas and Memory, 318
What Is Wisdom?, 318
Mental Imagery, 319
Mental Rotation, 319
Are Mental Images Pictures in the Mind?, 320
Mental Imagery and the Brain, 321
Metacognition: Knowing Your Own Cognitive Abilities, 322
Recognizing What You Do and Don't Know, 322
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP “Why Did I Get That Wrong?” Improving College Students' Awareness of Whether They Understand Text Material, 322
Further Advice on Improving Metacomprehension, 324
Chapter 10. Intelligence, 328
INTELLIGENCE IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE, 330
Sir Francis Galton: Quantifying Mental Ability, 330
Alfred Binet's Mental Tests, 331
Binet's Legacy: An Intelligence-Testing Industry Emerges, 332
THE NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE, 332
The Psychometric Approach: The Structure of Intellect, 332
Factor Analysis, 333
The g Factor: Intelligence as General Mental Capacity, 333
Intelligence as Specific Mental Abilities, 334
Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence, 334
Carroll's Three-Stratum Model: A Modern Synthesis, 335
Cognitive Process Approaches: The Nature of Intelligent Thinking, 336
Broader Conceptions of Intelligence: Beyond Mental Competencies, 337
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences, 337
Emotional Intelligence, 338
THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE, 340
Increasing the Informational Yield from Intelligence Tests, 341
Theory-Based Intelligence Tests, 341
Should We Test for Aptitude or Achievement?, 341
Psychometric Standards for Intelligence Tests, 342
Reliability, 342
Validity, 343
Standardization, 344
Assessing Intelligence in Non-Western Cultures, 346
BENEATH THE SURFACE Brain Size and Intelligence, 347
HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND INTELLIGENCE, 348
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Early-childhood Interventions: A Means of Boosting Intelligence?, 350
GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE, 351
Ethnic Group Differences, 352
Are the Tests Biased?, 352
What Factors Underlie the Differences?, 352
Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities, 353
Beliefs, Expectations, and Cognitive Performance, 354
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Stereotype Threat and Cognitive Performance, 355
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE, 356
The Intellectually Gifted, 356
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Are Gifted Children Maladjusted?, 357
Mental Retardation, 357
A Concluding Thought, 358
Chapter 11. Motivation and Emotion, 362
MOTIVATION, 363
Perspectives on Motivation, 364
Evolution, Instincts, and Genes, 364
Homeostasis and Drives, 364
Approach and Avoidance Motivation: The BAS and BIS, 365
Cognitive Processes: Incentives and Expectancies, 365
Psychodynamic and Humanistic Views, 366
Maslow's Need Hierarchy, 366
Self-Determination Theory, 366
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Is Maslow's Need Hierarchy Valid?, 367
Hunger and Weight Regulation, 367
The Physiology of Hunger, 367
Psychological Aspects of Hunger, 370
Environmental and Cultural Factors, 372
Obesity, 372
Eating Disorders: Anorexia and Bulimia, 373
Sexual Motivation, 375
Sexual Behavior: Patterns and Changes, 375
The Physiology of Sex, 376
The Psychology of Sex, 377
Cultural and Environmental Influences, 378
Sexual Orientation, 379
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Fraternal Birth Order and Male Homosexuality, 381
Social Motivation, 381
Why Do We Affiliate?, 381
Achievement Motivation, 383
Motive for Success and Fear of Failure, 383
Achievement Goal Theory, 384
Achievement Goal Orientations, 384
Family, Culture, and Achievement Needs, 386
Motivational Conflict, 387
EMOTION, 388
The Nature of Emotions, 388
Eliciting Stimuli, 389
The Cognitive Component, 389
The Physiological Component, 391
BENEATH THE SURFACE The Lie Detector Controversy, 393
The Behavioral Component, 394
Theories of Emotion, 398
The James-Lange Somatic Theory, 398
The Cannon-Bard Theory, 398
The Role of Autonomic Feedback, 398
The Role of Expressive Behaviors, 399
Cognitive-Affective Theories, 400
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Cognition-Arousal Relations: Two Classic Experiments, 400
Happiness, 403
How Happy Are People?, 403
What Makes People Happy?, 403
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE How to Be Happy: Guidelines from Psychological Research, 405
A Concluding Thought, 406
Chapter 12. Development Over the Life Span, 408
MAJOR ISSUES AND METHODS, 409
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, 411
Genetics and Sex Determination, 411
Environmental Influences, 412
INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD, 413
The Amazing Newborn, 413
Sensory Capabilities and Perceptual Preferences, 413
Reflexes and Learning, 414
Physical Development, 415
The Young Brain, 415
Environmental and Cultural Influences, 416
Cognitive Development, 416
Piaget's Stage Model, 416
Assessing Piaget's Theory: Stages, Ages, and Culture, 419
The Social Context of Cognitive Development, 419
Information-Processing Approaches, 420
Understanding the Physical World, 421
Theory of Mind: Understanding Mental States, 422
Social-Emotional and Personality Development, 422
Early Emotions and Emotion Regulation, 422
Temperament, 423
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Shy Child, Shy Adult?, 424
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory, 424
Attachment, 425
Attachment Deprivation, 427
The Child-Care Controversy, 427
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Understanding How Divorce and Remarriage Affect Children, 428
Styles of Parenting, 429
Parenting-Heredity Interactions, 430
Gender Identity and Socialization, 430
Moral Development, 431
Moral Thinking, 431
Culture, Gender, and Moral Reasoning, 432
Moral Behavior and Conscience, 432
ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD, 434
Physical Development, 435
Puberty, 435
The Adolescent Brain, 435
Physical Development in Adulthood, 435
The Adult Brain, 436
Cognitive Development, 436
Reasoning and Information Processing in Adolescence, 437
Information Processing in Adulthood, 438
Intellectual Changes in Adulthood, 438
BENEATH THE SURFACE Aging and Mental Ability: Use It or Lose It?, 439
The Growth of Wisdom?, 440
Cognitive Impairment in Old Age, 441
Social-Emotional Development, 441
Adolescents' Search for Identity, 441
Relationships with Parents and Peers, 442
Emotional Changes in Adolescence, 443
The Transition to Adulthood, 444
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP What Does It Take to Become an Adult?, 444
Stages versus Critical Events in Adulthood, 445
Marriage and Family, 446
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Cohabitation as a “Trial Marriage”, 447
Establishing a Career, 447
Midlife Crisis: Fact or Fiction?, 448
Retirement and the “Golden Years”, 448
Death and Dying, 448
Chapter 13. Personality, 452
WHAT IS PERSONALITY?, 454
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE, 455
Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory, 455
Psychic Energy and Mental Events, 456
The Structure of Personality, 456
Conflict, Anxiety, and Defense, 457
Psychosexual Development, 458
Neoanalytic and Object Relations Approaches, 458
Adult Attachment Styles, 459
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Attachment Style and Abusive Romantic Relationships, 461
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach, 462
Understanding Charles Whitman, 463
THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL-HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE, 464
George Kelly's Personal Construct Theory, 464
Carl Rogers's Theory of the Self, 465
The Self, 465
The Need for Positive Regard, 467
Fully Functioning Persons, 467
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Is Self-Actualization a Useful Scientific Construct?, 467
Research on the Self, 467
Self-Esteem, 467
Self-Verification and Self-Enhancement Motives, 468
Evaluating the Phenomenological-Humanistic Approach, 469
Understanding Chales Whitman, 469
THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE: MAPPING THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY, 470
Factor Analytic Approaches, 470
Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factors, 470
The Five Factor Model, 471
Stability of Personality Traits over Time, 472
BENEATH THE SURFACE How Consistent Is Our Behavior Across Situations?, 473
Evaluating the Trait Approach, 473
Understanding Charles Whitman, 474
BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PERSONALITY, 474
Genetics and Personality, 474
Personality and the Nervous System, 475
Eysenck's Extraversion-Stability Model, 475
Temperament: Building Blocks of Personality, 476
Evaluating the Biological Approach, 477
Understanding Charles Whitman, 478
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORIES, 478
Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, and Locus of Control, 479
Locus of Control, 479
Albert Bandura: Social Learning and Self-Efficacy, 480
Self-Efficacy, 480
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Increasing Self-Efficacy through Systematic Goal Setting, 482
Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda: The Cognitive-Affective Personality System, 483
Encodings and Personal Constructs, 483
Expectancies and Beliefs, 484
Goals and Values, 484
Affects (Emotions), 484
Competencies and Self-Regulatory Processes, 484
Reconciling Personality Coherence with Behavioral Inconsistency, 485
Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories, 486
Understanding Charles Whitman, 487
CULTURE, GENDER, AND PERSONALITY, 488
Culture Differences, 489
Gender Schemas, 490
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT, 490
Interviews, 491
Behavioral Assessment, 492
Remote Behavior Sampling, 492
Personality Scales, 493
Projective Tests, 494
Chapter 14. Adjusting to Life: Stress, Coping, and Health, 497
STRESS AND WELL-BEING, 499
Stressors, 499
Measuring Stressful Life Events, 501
The Stress Response: A Mind-Body Link, 501
Cognitive Appraisal, 501
Physiological Responses, 502
Effects of Stress on Well-Being, 502
Stress and Psychological Well-Being, 502
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do Stressful Events Cause Psychological Distress?, 503
Stress and Illness, 503
Stress and Aging, 504
Stress and the Immune System, 504
Factors That Influence Stress-Health Relations, 506
Social Support, 506
Physiological Reactivity, 507
Type A Behavior Pattern, 507
Mind as Healer or Slayer, 508
Resilient Children: Superkids or Ordinary Magic?, 509
COPING WITH STRESS, 511
Effectiveness of Coping Strategies, 512
Controllability and Coping Efficacy, 512
Trauma Disclosure and Emotional Release, 513
Bottling Up Feelings: The Hidden Costs of Emotional Constraint, 513
Gender, Culture, and Coping, 514
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Hold My Hand and I'll Be Fine, 515
Stress Management Training, 517
Cognitive Coping Skills, 517
Relaxation Techniques, 518
PAIN AND PAIN MANAGEMENT, 518
Biological Mechanisms of Pain, 519
Spinal and Brain Mechanisms, 519
The Endorphins, 520
Cultural and Psychological Influences on Pain, 521
Cultural Factors, 521
Meanings and Beliefs, 522
Personality Factors and Social Support, 523
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Psychological Techniques for Controlling Pain and Suffering, 523
HEALTH PROMOTION AND ILLNESS PREVENTION, 526
How People Change: The Transtheoretical Model, 526
Increasing Behaviors That Enhance Health, 528
Exercise, 529
Weight Control, 530
Lifestyle Changes and Medical Recovery, 530
Reducing Behaviors That Impair Health, 531
Psychology and the AIDS Crisis, 531
Combating Substance Abuse, 532
Motivational Interviewing, 533
Multimodal Treatment Approaches, 533
BENEATH THE SURFACE College-Age Drinking: Harmless Fun or Russian Roulette?, 534
Harm-Reduction Approaches to Prevention, 535
Relapse Prevention: Maintaining Positive Behavior Change, 535
A Concluding Thought, 537
Chapter 15. Psychological Disorders, 539
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANT BEHAVIOR, 541
DEFINING AND CLASSIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS, 543
What Is “Abnormal”?, 543
Diagnosing Psychological Disorders, 544
Consequences of Diagnostic Labeling, 545
Social and Personal Consequences, 545
Legal Consequences, 545
WHAT DO YOU THINK? “Do I Have That Disorder?”, 546
ANXIETY DISORDERS, 546
Phobic Disorder, 547
Generalized Anxiety Disorder, 547
Panic Disorder, 548
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, 549
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, 549
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Growth from Trauma?, 550
Causal Factors in Anxiety Disorders, 550
Biological Factors, 550
Psychological Factors, 551
Sociocultural Factors, 552
SOMATOFORM AND DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS: ANXIETY INFERRED, 554
Somatoform Disorders, 554
Dissociative Disorders, 555
Dissociative Identity (Multiple Personality) Disorder, 555
What Causes DID?, 556
MOOD DISORDERS, 556
Depression, 556
Bipolar Disorder, 557
Prevalence and Course of Mood Disorders, 558
Causal Factors in Mood Disorders, 559
Biological Factors, 559
Psychological Factors, 560
Sociocultural Factors, 562
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Understanding and Preventing Suicide, 562
SCHIZOPHRENIA, 564
Characteristics of Schizophrenia, 564
Subtypes of Schizophrenia, 565
Causal Factors in Schizophrenia, 566
Biological Factors, 566
Psychological Factors, 567
Environmental Factors, 568
Sociocultural Factors, 569
PERSONALITY DISORDERS, 570
Antisocial Personality Disorder, 570
Causal Factors, 572
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Fear, Avoidance Learning, and Psychopathy, 573
Borderline Personality Disorder, 575
Causal Factors, 575
BENEATH THE SURFACE How Dangerous Are People with Psychological Disorders?, 576
CHILDHOOD DISORDERS, 578
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, 578
Autistic Disorder, 578
Causal Factors, 579
A Closing Thought, 580
Chapter 16. Treatment of Psychological Disorders, 582
PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS, 583
PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES, 584
Psychoanalysis, 585
Free Association, 585
Dream Interpretation, 585
Resistance, 586
Transference, 586
Interpretation, 586
Brief Psychodynamic and Interpersonal Therapies, 587
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIES, 588
Person-Centered Therapy, 588
Gestalt Therapy, 589
COGNITIVE THERAPIES, 590
Ellis's Rational-Emotive Therapy, 590
Beck's Cognitive Therapy, 591
BEHAVIOR THERAPIES, 592
Exposure: An Extinction Approach, 592
Systematic Desensitization: A Counterconditioning Approach, 593
Aversion Therapy, 594
Operant Conditioning Treatments, 595
Positive Reinforcement Techniques, 595
Therapeutic Application of Punishment, 596
Behavioral Activation Therapy, 596
Modeling and Social Skills Training, 597
INTEGRATING AND COMBINING THERAPIES, 597
GROUP, FAMILY, AND MARITAL THERAPIES, 598
Family Therapy, 599
Marital Therapy, 599
CULTURAL AND GENDER ISSUES IN PSYCHOTHERAPY, 600
Cultural Factors in Treatment Utilization, 600
Gender Issues in Therapy, 601
EVALUATING PSYCHOTHERAPIES, 602
Eysenck's Great Challenge, 602
Psychotherapy Research Methods, 603
Survey Research, 603
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do Survey Results Provide an Accurate Picture of Treatment Effectiveness?, 604
Randomized Clinical Trials, 604
Meta-Analysis: A Look at the Big Picture, 605
Factors Affecting the Outcome of Therapy, 606
Client Variables, 606
Therapist and Technique Variables, 606
Common Factors, 607
BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO TREATMENT, 608
Drug Therapies, 608
Antipsychotic Drugs, 608
Antianxiety Drugs, 609
Antidepressant Drugs, 609
BENEATH THE SURFACE Some Depressing Facts about Antidepressant Drugs, 610
Electroconvulsive Therapy, 611
Psychosurgery, 612
Mind, Body, and Therapeutic Interventions, 612
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Drugs versus Psychological Treatments for Depression: A Randomized Clinical Trial, 614
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND SOCIETY, 616
Deinstitutionalization, 616
Mental Health Treatment in a Managed-Care Environment, 617
Preventive Mental Health, 618
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE When and Where to Seek Therapy, 620
Chapter 17. Social Thinking and Behavior, 623
SOCIAL THINKING, 624
Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior, 624
Personal versus Situational Attributions, 625
Attributional Biases, 625
Culture and Attribution, 626
Forming and Maintaining Impressions, 627
How Important Are First Impressions?, 627
Seeing What We Expect to See, 627
Creating What We Expect to See, 628
Attitudes and Attitude Change, 628
Do Our Attitudes Influence Our Behavior?, 628
Does Our Behavior Influence Our Attitudes?, 629
Persuasion, 631
SOCIAL INFLUENCE, 633
Norms, Conformity, and Obedience, 633
Norm Formation and Culture, 633
Why Do People Conform?, 634
Factors That Affect Conformity, 635
Minority Influence, 636
Obedience to Authority, 636
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority, 636
Factors That Influence Obedience, 638
Would People Obey Today?, 639
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do Women Differ from Men in Obedience?, 639
Lessons Learned, 639
Detecting and Resisting Compliance Techniques, 640
Behavior in Groups, 641
Social Loafing, 641
Group Polarization, 641
Groupthink, 642
Deindividuation, 643
SOCIAL RELATIONS, 644
Attraction: Liking and Loving Others, 644
Initial Attraction: Proximity, Mere Exposure, and Similarity, 644
Spellbound by Beauty, 645
As Attraction Deepens: Close Relationships, 646
Sociocultural and Evolutionary Views, 647
Love, 648
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Making Close Relationships Work: Lessons from Psychological Research, 648
Ostracism: Rejection Hurts, 650
Prejudice: Bias against Others, 650
Explicit and Implicit Prejudice, 651
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice, 651
Motivational Roots of Prejudice, 652
How Prejudice Confirms Itself, 653
Reducing Prejudice, 654
Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others, 656
Why Do People Help?, 656
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Does Pure Altruism Really Exist?, 657
When Do People Help?, 657
Whom Do People Help?, 658
Increasing Prosocial Behavior, 658
Aggression: Harming Others, 658
Biological Factors in Aggression, 658
Environmental Stimuli and Learning, 659
Psychological Factors in Aggression, 659
Media (and Video Game) Violence: Catharsis versus Social Learning, 660
BENEATH THE SURFACE Do Violent Video Games Promote Aggression?, 662
A Final Word, 663
Appendix: STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY, A-1
CREDITS, C-1
GLOSSARY, G-1
REFERENCES, R-1
NAME INDEX, NI-1
SUBJECT INDEX, SI-1

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