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Part ONE. AN OVERVIEW, 1
1. The Scope and Challenge of International Marketing, 2
Global Perspective: Global Commerce Causes Peace, 3
The Internationalization of U.S. Business, 6
International Marketing Defined, 9
The International Marketing Task, 10
Marketing Decision Factors, 10
Aspects of the Domestic Environment, 10
Aspects of the Foreign Environment, 12
Environmental Adaptation Needed, 14
The Self-Reference Criterion and Ethnocentrism: Major Obstacles, 15
Developing a Global Awareness, 17
Stages of International Marketing Involvement, 17
No Direct Foreign Marketing, 18
Infrequent Foreign Marketing, 18
Regular Foreign Marketing, 19
International Marketing, 19
Global Marketing, 20
Strategic Orientation, 22
Domestic Market Extension Orientation, 22
Multidomestic Market Orientation, 22
Global Market Orientation, 22
The Orientation of International Marketing, 23
2. The Dynamic Environment of International Trade, 26
Global Perspective: Trade Barriers—An International Marketer's Minefield, 27
The Twentieth to the Twenty-First Century, 28
World Trade and U.S. Multinationals, 30
Beyond the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century, 32
Balance of Payments, 33
Protectionism, 35
Protection Logic and Illogic, 35
Trade Barriers, 37
Easing Trade Restrictions, 41
The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act, 41
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 42
World Trade Organization, 44
Skirting the Spirit of GATT and WTO, 45
The International Monetary Fund and World Bank Group, 45
Protests against Global Institutions, 47
Part TWO. THE CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT OF GLOBAL MARKETS, 50
3. History and Geography: The Foundations of Culture, 50
Global Perspective: Birth of a Nation—Panama in 67 Hours, 51
Historical Perspective in Global Business, 52
History and Contemporary Behavior, 53
History Is Subjective, 55
Manifest Destiny and the Monroe Doctrine, 57
Geography and Global Markets, 61
Climate and Topography, 62
Geography Nature, and Economic Growth, 65
Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 67
Resources, 69
Dynamics of Global Population Trends, 72
Controlling Population Growth, 72
Rural/Urban Migration, 73
Population Decline and Aging, 74
Worker Shortage and Immigration, 76
World Trade Routes, 78
Communication Links, 79
World Maps, 81
4. Cultural Dynamics in Assessing Global Markets, 92
Global Perspective: Equities and eBay—Culture Gets in the Way, 93
Culture's Pervasive Impact, 94
Definitions and Origins of Culture, 100
Geography, 102
History, 102
The Political Economy, 103
Technology, 103
Social Institutions, 103
Elements of Culture, 106
Cultural Values, 106
Rituals, 110
Symbols, 111
Beliefs, 113
Thought Processes, 114
Cultural Knowledge, 115
Factual versus Interpretive Knowledge, 115
Cultural Sensitivity and Tolerance, 116
Cultural Change, 117
Cultural Borrowing, 117
Similarities: An Illusion, 118
Resistance to Change, 118
Planned and Unplanned Cultural Change, 119
Consequences of Innovation, 121
5. Culture, Management Style, and Business Systems, 124
Global Perspective: Do Blondes Have More Fun in Japan?, 125
Required Adaptation, 126
Degree of Adaptation, 127
Imperatives, Electives, and Exclusives, 127
The Impact of American Culture on Management Style, 129
Management Styles around the World, 132
Authority and Decision Making, 132
Management Objectives and Aspirations, 134
Communication Styles, 136
Formality and Tempo, 139
P-Time versus M-Time, 140
Negotiations Emphasis, 141
Marketing Orientation, 141
Gender Bias in International Business, 142
Business Ethics, 145
Corruption Defined, 145
The Western Focus on Bribery, 147
Bribery: Variations on a Theme, 150
Ethical and Socially Responsible Decisions, 152
Culture's Influence on Strategic Thinking, 154
Synthesis: Relationship-Oriented versus Information-Oriented Cultures, 155
6. The Political Environment: A Critical Concern, 160
Global Perspective: World Trade Goes Bananas, 161
The Sovereignty of Nations, 162
Stability of Government Policies, 163
Forms of Government, 165
Political Parties, 166
Nationalism, 167
Targeted Fear and/or Animosity, 168
Trade Disputes, 169
Political Risks of Global Business, 169
Confiscation, Expropriation, and Domestication, 169
Economic Risks, 170
Political Sanctions, 172
Political and Social Activists and Nongovernmental Organizations, 172
Violence, Terrorism, and War, 174
Cyberterrorismand Cybercrime, 175
Assessing Political Vulnerability, 176
Politically Sensitive Products and Issues, 176
Forecasting Political Risk, 177
Lessening Political Vulnerability, 179
Joint Ventures, 179
Expanding the Investment Base, 180
Licensing, 180
Planned Domestication, 180
Political Bargaining, 180
Political Payoffs, 181
Government Encouragement, 181
7. The International Legal Environment: Playing by the Rules, 184
Global Perspective: The Pajama Caper, 185
Bases for Legal Systems, 186
Common vs. Code Law, 187
Islamic Law, 188
Marxist–Socialist Tenets, 189
Jurisdiction in International Legal Disputes, 190
International Dispute Resolution, 191
Conciliation, 191
Arbitration, 191
Litigation, 194
Protection of Intellectual Property Rights: A Special Problem, 194
Counterfeiting and Piracy, 194
Inadequate Protection, 196
Prior Use versus Registration, 197
International Conventions, 197
Other Managerial Approaches to Protecting Intellectual Property, 200
Commercial Law within Countries, 201
Marketing Laws, 201
Green Marketing Legislation, 204
Foreign Countries' Antitrust Laws, 205
U.S. Laws Apply in Host Countries, 205
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, 206
National Security Laws, 207
U.S. Antitrust Laws that Apply in Foreign Markets, 209
Antiboycott Law, 209
Extraterritoriality of U.S. Laws, 210
Cyberlaw: Unresolved Issues, 210
Domain Names and Cybersquatters, 211
Taxes, 212
Jurisdiction of Disputes and Validity of Contracts, 212
Part THREE. ASSESSING GLOBAL MARKET OPPORTUNITIES, 214
8. Developing a Global Vision through Marketing Research, 214
Global Perspective: Japan—Test Market for the World, 215
Breadth and Scope of International Marketing Research, 217
The Research Process, 218
Defining the Problem and Establishing Research Objectives, 219
Problems of Availability and Use of Secondary Data, 220
Availability of Data, 221
Reliability of Data, 222
Comparability of Data, 222
Validating Secondary Data, 223
Gathering Primary Data: Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 223
Problems of Gathering Primary Data, 225
Ability to Communicate Opinions, 225
Willingness to Respond, 226
Sampling in Field Surveys, 227
Language and Comprehension, 228
Multicultural Research: A Special Problem, 230
Research on the Internet: A Growing Opportunity, 231
Estimating Market Demand, 233
Expert Opinion, 234
Analogy, 234
Problems in Analyzing and Interpreting Research Information, 236
Responsibility for Conducting Marketing Research, 237
Communicating with Decision Makers, 238
Appendix: Sources of Secondary Data, 240
9. Emerging Markets, 244
Global Perspective: Wal-Mart, Tide, and Three-Snake Wine, 245
Marketing and Economic Development, 246
Stages of Economic Development, 247
NIC Growth Factors, 249
Information Technology, the Internet, and Economic Development, 251
Objectives of Developing Countries, 252
Infrastructure and Development, 253
Marketing's Contributions, 254
Marketing in a Developing Country, 256
Level of Market Development, 256
Demand in Developing Countries, 258
Bottom-of-the-Pyramid Markets (BOPMs), 260
Developing Countries and Emerging Markets, 262
Latin America, 263
Eastern Europe and the Baltic States, 264
Asia, 265
Newest Emerging Markets, 270
Strategic Implications for Marketing, 271
Emerging Competition, 272
10. Multinational Market Regions and Market Groups, 274
Global Perspective: Might Free Trade Bring Peace to the Middle East?, 275
La Raison d'Etre, 277
Economic Factors, 277
Political Factors, 278
Geographic and Temporal Proximity, 278
Cultural Factors, 278
Patterns of Multinational Cooperation, 279
Global Markets and Multinational Market Groups, 280
Europe, 280
European Integration, 282
European Union, 284
The Commonwealth of Independent States, 287
The Americas, 289
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 289
United States–Central American Free Trade Agreement–Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), 292
Southern Cone Free Trade Area (Mercosur), 292
Latin American Economic Cooperation, 294
NAFTA to FTAA or SAFTA?, 295
Asian-Pacific Rim, 295
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 296
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, 297
Africa, 297
Middle East, 298
Implications of Market Integration, 299
Strategic Implications, 300
Marketing Mix Implications, 301
Part FOUR. DEVELOPING GLOBAL MARKETING STRATEGIES, 304
11. Global Marketing Management: Planning and Organization, 304
Global Perspective: Global Gateways, 305
Global Marketing Management, 306
The Nestlé Way: Evolution Not Revolution, 309
Benefits of Global Marketing, 310
Planning for Global Markets, 311
Company Objectives and Resources, 313
International Commitment, 313
The Planning Process, 314
Alternative Market-Entry Strategies, 318
Exporting, 320
Contractual Agreements, 321
Strategic International Alliances, 323
Direct Foreign Investment, 328
Organizing for Global Competition, 330
Locus of Decision, 331
Centralized versus Decentralized Organizations, 332
12. Products and Services for Consumers, 334
Global Perspective: Hong Kong—Disney Rolls the Dice Again, 335
Quality, 336
Quality Defined, 337
Maintaining Quality, 338
Physical or Mandatory Requirements and Adaptation, 339
Green Marketing and Product Development, 339
Products and Culture, 341
Innovative Products and Adaptation, 343
Diffusion of Innovations, 344
Production of Innovations, 347
Analyzing Product Components for Adaptation, 348
Core Component, 349
Packaging Component, 349
Support Services Component, 351
Marketing Consumer Services Globally, 353
Services Opportunities in Global Markets, 353
Barriers to Entering Global Markets for Consumer Services, 356
Brands in International Markets, 358
Global Brands, 360
National Brands, 362
Country-of-Origin Effect and Global Brands, 363
Private Brands, 365
13. Products and Services for Businesses, 368
Global Perspective: Intel, the Boom and the Inescapable Bust, 369
Demand in Global Business-to-Business Markets, 371
The Volatility of Industrial Demand, 372
Stages of Economic Development, 375
Technology and Market Demand, 375
Quality and Global Standards, 376
Quality Is Defined by the Buyer, 377
ISO 9000 Certification: An International Standard of Quality, 380
Business Services, 381
After-Sale Services, 382
Other Business Services, 383
Trade Shows: A Crucial Part of Business-to-Business Marketing, 385
Relationship Marketing in Business-to-Business Contexts, 388
14. International Marketing Channels, 394
Global Perspective: A Single Stick of Doublemint Today—18 Billion Tomorrow, 395
Channel-of-Distribution Structures, 396
Import-Oriented Distribution Structure, 396
Japanese Distribution Structure, 397
Trends: From Traditional to Modern Channel Structures, 401
Distribution Patterns, 404
Retail Patterns, 405
Alternative Middleman Choices, 407
Home-Country Middlemen, 408
Foreign-Country Middlemen, 412
Government-Affiliated Middlemen, 412
Factors Affecting Choice of Channels, 412
Cost, 413
Capital Requirements, 413
Control, 414
Coverage, 414
Character, 414
Continuity, 415
Locating, Selecting, and Motivating Channel Members, 415
Locating Middlemen, 416
Selecting Middlemen, 416
Motivating Middlemen, 417
Terminating Middlemen, 417
Controlling Middlemen, 418
The Internet, 419
15. Exporting and Logistics: Special Issues for Business, 428
Global Perspective: An Export Sale: From Trade Show to Installation, 429
Export Restrictions, 432
Determining Export Requirements, 432
ELAIN, STELA, ERIC, and SNAP, 436
Import Restrictions, 437
Tariffs, 438
Exchange Permits, 438
Quotas, 439
Import Licenses, 440
Standards, 440
Boycotts, 440
Voluntary Agreements, 441
Other Restrictions, 441
Terms of Sale, 441
Getting Paid: Foreign Commercial Payments, 443
Letters of Credit, 443
Bills of Exchange, 444
Cash in Advance, 445
Open Accounts, 445
Forfaiting, 445
Export Documents, 445
Packing and Marking, 447
Customs-Privileged Facilities, 447
Foreign Trade Zones, 447
Offshore Assembly (Maquiladoras), 449
Logistics, 449
Interdependence of Physical Distribution Activities, 450
Benefits of a Physical Distribution System, 452
Export Shipping and Warehousing, 452
Foreign Freight Forwarder, 455
International Logistics and Supply Chain Management, 455
Terrorism and Logistics, 456
Cargo and Container Security Initiative, 456
Customs–Trade Partnership against Terrorism, 457
Electronic Tracking, 458
16. Integrated Marketing Communications and International Advertising, 462
Global Perspective: Barbie versus Mulan, 463
Sales Promotions in International Markets, 464
International Public Relations, 465
International Advertising, 469
Advertising Strategy and Goals, 471
Product Attribute and Benefit Segmentation, 472
Regional Segmentation, 473
The Message: Creative Challenges, 476
Global Advertising and the Communications Process, 476
Legal Constraints, 480
Linguistic Limitations, 482
Cultural Diversity, 484
Media Limitations, 484
Production and Cost Limitations, 484
Media Planning and Analysis, 485
Tactical Considerations, 485
Campaign Executionand Advertising Agencies, 496
International Control of Advertising: Broader Issues, 497
17. Personal Selling and Sales Management, 500
Global Perspective: International Assignments Are Glamorous, Right?, 501
Designing the Sales Force, 502
Recruiting Marketing and Sales Personnel, 504
Expatriates, 504
Virtual Expatriates, 505
Local Nationals, 505
Third-Country Nationals, 507
Host-Country Restrictions, 508
Selecting Sales and Marketing Personnel, 508
Training for International Marketing, 511
Motivating Sales Personnel, 512
Designing Compensation Systems, 514
For Expatriates, 514
For a Global Sales Force, 515
Evaluating and Controlling Sales Representatives, 517
Preparing U.S. Personnel for Foreign Assignments, 517
Overcoming Reluctance to Accept a Foreign Assignment, 518
Reducing the Rate of Early Returns, 518
Successful Expatriate Repatriation, 519
Developing Cultural Awareness, 521
The Changing Profile of the Global Manager, 521
Foreign-Language Skills, 523
18. Pricing for International Markets, 526
Global Perspective: The Price War, 527
Pricing Policy, 528
Pricing Objectives, 528
Parallel Imports, 529
Approaches to International Pricing, 532
Full-Cost versus Variable-Cost Pricing, 532
Skimming versus Penetration Pricing, 533
Price Escalation, 535
Costs of Exporting, 535
Taxes, Tariffs, and Administrative Costs, 535
Inflation, 535
Deflation, 536
Exchange Rate Fluctuations, 536
Varying Currency Values, 537
Middleman and Transportation Costs, 538
Sample Effects of Price Escalation, 539
Approaches to Reducing Price Escalation, 540
Lowering Cost of Goods, 540
Lowering Tariffs, 540
Lowering Distribution Costs, 542
Using Foreign Trade Zones to Lessen Price Escalation, 542
Dumping, 543
Leasing in International Markets, 545
Countertrade as a Pricing Tool, 545
Types of Countertrade, 546
Problems of Countertrading, 548
The Internet and Countertrading, 548
Proactive Countertrade Strategy, 549
Transfer Pricing Strategy, 549
Price Quotations, 551
Administered Pricing, 551
Cartels, 551
Government-Influenced Pricing, 553
Part FIVE. IMPLEMENTING GLOBAL MARKETING STRATEGIES, 556
19. Negotiating with International Customers, Partners, and Regulators, 556
Global Perspective: A Japanese Aisatsu, 557
The Dangers of Stereotypes, 559
The Pervasive Impact of Culture on Negotiation Behavior, 560
Differences in Language and Nonverbal Behaviors, 561
Differences in Values, 567
Differences in Thinking and Decision-Making Processes, 569
Implications for Managers and Negotiators, 570
Negotiation Teams, 570
Negotiation Preliminaries, 571
At the Negotiation Table, 574
After Negotiations, 580
Conclusions, 580
Part SIX. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL, 583
THE COUNTRY NOTEBOOK—A Guide for Developing a Marketing Plan, 583
Cases 1. An Overview, 593
1-1. Starbucks—Going Global Fast, 594
1-2. Nestlé: The Infant Formula Controversy, 598
1-3. Coke and Pepsi Learn to Compete in India, 602
1-4. Marketing Microwave Ovens to a New Market Segment, 607
Cases 2. The Cultural Environment of Global Marketing, 611
2-1. The Not-So-Wonderful World of EuroDisney—Things Are Better Nowat Paris Disneyland, 612
2-2. Cultural Norms, Fair & Lovely, and Advertising, 617
2-3. Starnes-Brenner Machine Tool Company: To Bribe or Not to Bribe?, 620
2-4. Ethics and Airbus, 623
2-5. Coping with Corruption in Trading with China, 628
2-6. When International Buyers and Sellers Disagree, 631
2-7. McDonald's and Obesity, 632
2-8. Ultrasound Machines, India, China, and a Skewed Sex Ratio, 636
Cases 3. Assessing Global Market Opportunities, 639
3-1. International Marketing Research at the Mayo Clinic, 640
3-2. Swifter, Higher, Stronger, Dearer, 644
3-3. easyCar. com, 648
3-4. Marketing to the Bottom of the Pyramid, 654
Cases 4. Developing Global Marketing Strategies, 657
4-1. McDonald's Great Britain—The Turnaround, 658
4-2. Tambrands: Overcoming Cultural Resistance, 661
4-3. Iberia Airlines Buildsa BATNA, 664
4-4. Sales Negotiations Abroad for MRI Systems, 667
4-5. National Office Machines—Motivating Japanese Salespeople: Straight Salary or Commission?, 668
4-6. AIDS, Condoms, and Carnival, 671
4-7. Making Socially Responsible and Ethical Marketing Decisions: Selling Tobacco to Third World Countries, 675
Glossary, 680
Name Index, 688
Subject Index, 695

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