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Preface, iv
Guided Tour, vi
Acknowledgments, xiii
Supplements, xvi
1. Biology, the Study of Life, 2
Fire Ants Have a Good Defense, 3
Organisms Are Characterized by Diversity and Unity, 4
1.1. Life is diverse, 4
1.2. Life has many levels of organization, 4
1.3. Organisms share the same characteristics of life, 6
Classification Helps Us Understand Diversity, 8
1.4. Taxonomists group organisms according to evolutionary relationships, 8
The Biosphere Is Organized, 10
1.5. The biosphere is divided into ecosystems, 10
1.6. Most of the biosphere's ecosystems are now threatened, 10
Scientists Observe, Hypothesize, and Test, 11
1.7. The natural world is studied by using scientific methods, 11
1.8. Control groups allow for comparison of results, 12
1.9. How Biology Impacts Our Lives DNA barcoding of life may become a reality, 14
Part I. Organisms Are Composed of Cells, 18
2. Basic Chemistry and Cells, 18
Life Depends on Water, 19
All Matter Is Composed of Chemical Elements, 20
2.1. Six elements are basic to life, 20
2.2. Atoms contain subatomic particles, 21
2.3. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Radioactive isotopes have many medical uses, 22
Atoms React with One Another to Form Molecules, 23
2.4. After atoms react, they have a completed outer shell, 23
2.5. An ionic bond occurs when electrons are transferred, 24
2.6. A covalent bond occurs when electrons are shared, 25
2.7. A covalent bond can be nonpolar or polar, 26
2.8. A hydrogen bond can occur between polar molecules, 26
The Properties of Water Benefit Life, 27
2.9. Water molecules stick together: Cohesion, 27
2.10. Water warms up and cools down slowly, 28
2.11. Water dissolves other polar substances, 28
2.12. Frozen water is less dense than liquid water, 29
Living Things Require a Narrow pH Range, 30
2.13. Acids and bases affect living things, 30
2.14. The pH scale measures acidity and basicity, 31
2.15. Buffers help keep the pH of body fluids relatively constant, 31
2.16. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Acid deposition has many harmful effects, 32
3. Organic Molecules and Cells, 36
Plants and Animals Are the Same but Different, 37
The Diversity of Organic Molecules Makes Life Diverse, 38
3.1. The chemistry of carbon makes diverse molecules possible, 38
3.2. Functional groups add to the diversity of organic molecules, 39
3.3. Molecular subunits can be linked to form macromolecules, 40
Carbohydrates Are Energy Sources and Structural Components, 41
3.4. Simple carbohydrates provide quick energy, 41
3.5. Complex carbohydrates store energy and provide structural support, 42
Lipids Provide Storage, Insulation, and Other Functions, 43
3.6. Fats and oils are rich energy-storage molecules, 43
3.7. Other lipids have structural, hormonal, or protective functions, 44
Proteins Have a Wide Variety of Vital Functions, 45
3.8. Proteins are the most versatile of life's molecules, 45
3.9. Each protein is a sequence of particular amino acids, 45
3.10. The shape of a protein is necessary to its function, 47
Nucleic Acids Are Information Molecules, 48
3.11. The nucleic acids DNA and RNA carry coded information, 48
3.12. How Biology Impacts Our Lives The Human Genome Project may lead to new disease treatments, 49
3.13. The nucleotide ATP is the cell's energy carrier, 50
4. Structure and Function of Cells, 54
Cells: What Are They?, 55
Cells Are the Basic Units of Life, 56
4.1. All organisms are composed of cells, 56
4.2. Metabolically active cells are small in size, 57
4.3. How Science Progresses Microscopes allow us to see cells, 58
4.4. Prokaryotic cells evolved first, 59
4.5. Eukaryotic cells contain specialized organelles: An overview, 60
Protein Synthesis Is a Major Function of Cells, 62
4.6. The nucleus contains the cell's genetic information, 62
4.7. The ribosomes carry out protein synthesis, 63
4.8. The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes and transports proteins and lipids, 64
4.9. The Golgi apparatus modifies and repackages proteins for distribution, 65
4.10. How Science Progresses Pulse-labeling allows observation of the secretory pathway, 65
Vesicles and Vacuoles Have Varied Functions, 66
4.11. Lysosomes digest macromolecules and cell parts, 66
4.12. Peroxisomes break down long-chain fatty acids, 66
4.13. Vacuoles have varied functions in protists and plants, 66
4.14. The organelles of the endomembrane system work together, 67
A Cell Carries Out Energy Transformations, 68
4.15. Chloroplasts capture solar energy and produce carbohydrates, 68
4.16. Mitochondria break down carbohydrates and produce ATP, 68
4.17. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Malfunctioning mitochondria can cause human diseases, 69
The Cytoskeleton Maintains Cell Shape and Assists Movement, 70
4.18. The cytoskeleton consists of filaments and microtubules, 70
4.19. Cilia and flagella contain microtubules, 71
In Multicellular Organisms, Cells Join Together, 72
4.20. Modifications of cell surfaces influence their behavior, 72
5. Dynamic Activities of Cells, 76
Life's Energy Comes from the Sun, 77
Living Things Transform Energy, 78
5.1. Energy makes things happen, 78
5.2. Two laws apply to energy and its use, 79
5.3. Cellular work is powered by ATP, 80
5.4. ATP breakdown is coupled to energy-requiring reactions, 81
Enzymes Speed Chemical Reactions, 82
5.5. Enzymes speed reactions by lowering activation barriers, 82
5.6. An enzyme's active site is where the reaction takes place, 82
5.7. Enzyme speed is affected by local conditions, 83
5.8. Enzymes can be inhibited noncompetitively and competitively, 84
5.9. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Enzyme inhibitors can spell death, 84
The Plasma Membrane Has Many and Various Functions, 85
5.10. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, 85
5.11. Proteins in the plasma membrane have numerous functions, 86
5.12. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Malfunctioning plasma membrane proteins can cause human diseases, 87
The Plasma Membrane Regulates the Passage of Molecules Into and Out of Cells, 88
5.13. Simple diffusion across a membrane requires no energy, 88
5.14. Facilitated diffusion requires a carrier protein but no energy, 88
5.15. Osmosis can affect the size and shape of cells, 89
5.16. Active transport requires a carrier protein and energy, 90
5.17. Bulk transport involves the use of vesicles, 90
6. Pathways of Photosynthesis, 94
Color It Green, 95
Photosynthesis Produces Food and Releases Oxygen, 96
6.1. Photosynthesizers are autotrophs that produce their own food, 96
6.2. In plants, chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis, 97
6.3. Photosynthesis is a redox reaction that releases O₂, 98
6.4. How Science Progresses Experiments showed that the O₂ released by photosynthesis comes from water, 98
6.5. Photosynthesis involves two sets of reactions: The light reactions and the Calvin cycle reactions, 99
First, Solar Energy Is Captured, 100
6.6. Light reactions begin: Solar energy is absorbed by pigments, 100
6.7. How Science Progresses Fall temperatures cause leaves to change color, 100
6.8. Solar energy boosts electrons to a higher energy level, 101
6.9. Electrons release their energy as ATP forms, 101
6.10. During the light reactions, electrons follow a noncyclic pathway, 102
6.11. The thylakoid membrane is organized to produce ATP and NADPH, 103
Second, Carbohydrate Is Synthesized, 104
6.12. The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH from the light reactions to produce a carbohydrate, 104
6.13. In plants, carbohydrate is the starting point for other molecules, 105
C₃, C₄, and CAM Photosynthesis Thrive Under Different Conditions, 106
6.14. C₃ photosynthesis evolved when oxygen was in limited supply, 106
6.15. C₄ photosynthesis boosts CO₂ concentration for RuBP carboxylase, 106
6.16. CAM photosynthesis is another alternative to C₃ photosynthesis, 107
6.17. How Science Progresses Destroying tropical rain forests contributes to global warming, 108
7. Pathways of Cellular Respiration, 112
ATP Is Universal, 113
Glucose Breakdown Releases Energy, 114
7.1. Cellular respiration is a redox reaction that requires O₂, 114
7.2. Cellular respiration has four phases—three phases occur in mitochondria, 115
Carbon Dioxide and Water Are Produced During Glucose Breakdown, 116
7.3. Glycolysis: Glucose breakdown begins, 116
7.4. The preparatory reaction occurs before the citric acid cycle, 118
7.5. The citric acid cycle: Final oxidation of glucose products, 119
7.6. The electron transport chain captures much energy, 120
7.7. The cristae create an H⁺ gradient that drives ATP production, 121
7.8. The ATP payoff can be calculated, 122
Fermentation Is Inefficient, 123
7.9. When oxygen is in short supply, the cell switches to fermentation, 123
7.10. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Fermentation helps produce numerous food products, 124
Metabolic Pathways Cross at Particular Substrates, 125
7.11. Organic molecules can be broken down and synthesized as needed, 125
7.12. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Exercise burns fat, 126
Biological Viewpoints Organisms Are Composed of Cells, 130
Part II. Genes Control the Traits of Organisms, 132
8. Cell Division and Reproduction, 132
Cancer Is a Genetic Disorder, 133
Cell Division Ensures the Passage of Genetic Information, 134
8.1. Cell division is involved in both asexual and sexual reproduction, 134
8.2. Prokaryotes reproduce asexually, 135
Somatic Cells Have a Cell Cycle and Undergo Mitosis and Cytokinesis, 136
8.3. The eukaryotic cell cycle is a set series of events, 136
8.4. Eukaryotic chromosomes are visible during cell division, 137
8.5. Mitosis maintains the chromosome number, 138
8.6. Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm, 140
Cancer Is Uncontrolled Cell Division, 141
8.7. Cell cycle control occurs at checkpoints, 141
8.8. Signals affect the cell cycle control system, 142
8.9. Cancer cells have abnormal characteristics, 143
8.10. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Protective behaviors and diet help prevent cancer, 144
Meiosis Produces Cells That Become the Gametes in Animals and Spores in Other Organisms, 145
8.11. Homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis, 145
8.12. Synapsis and crossing-over occur during meiosis I, 146
8.13. Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation, 146
8.14. Meiosis requires two division cycles, 148
8.15. The life cycle of most multicellular organisms includes both mitosis and meiosis, 150
8.16. Meiosis can be compared to mitosis, 151
Chromosomal Abnormalities Can Be Inherited, 152
8.17. An abnormal chromosome number is sometimes traceable to nondisjunction, 152
8.18. Abnormal chromosome numbers cause syndromes, 153
8.19. Abnormal chromosome structure also causes syndromes, 154
9. Patterns of Genetic Inheritance, 158
Inbreeding Leads to Disorders, 159
Gregor Mendel Deduced Laws of Inheritance, 160
9.1. A blending model of inheritance existed prior to Mendel, 160
9.2. Mendel designed his experiments well, 160
Single-Trait Crosses Reveal Units of Inheritance and the Law of Segregation, 162
9.3. Mendel's law of segregation describes how gametes pass on traits, 162
9.4. The units of inheritance are alleles of genes, 163
Two-Trait Crosses Support the Law of Independent Assortment, 164
9.5. Mendel's law of independent assortment describes inheritance of multiple traits, 164
9.6. Mendel's results are consistent with the laws of probability, 165
9.7. Testcrosses support Mendel's laws and indicate the genotype, 166
Mendel's Laws Apply to Humans, 167
9.8. Pedigrees can reveal the patterns of inheritance, 167
9.9. Some human genetic disorders are autosomal recessive, 168
9.10. Some human genetic disorders are autosomal dominant, 169
9.11. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Genetic disorders may now be detected early on, 170
Complex Inheritance Patterns Extend the Range of Mendelian Analysis, 171
9.12. Incomplete dominance still follows the law of segregation, 171
9.13. A gene may have more than two alleles, 171
9.14. Several genes and the environment can influence a single multifactorial characteristic, 172
9.15. One gene can influence several characteristics, 173
Chromosomes Are the Carriers of Genes, 174
9.16. Traits transmitted via the X chromosome have a unique pattern of inheritance, 174
9.17. Humans have X-linked disorders, 175
9.18. The genes on one chromosome form a linkage group, 176
9.19. Frequency of recombinant gametes maps the chromosomes, 176
9.20. How Science Progresses Thomas Hunt Morgan is commonly called “the fruit fly guy”, 178
10. Molecular Biology of Inheritance, 182
Arabidopsis Is a Model Organism, 183
DNA Is the Genetic Material, 184
10.1. DNA is a transforming substance, 184
10.2. DNA, not protein, is the genetic material, 184
10.3. DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides, 186
10.4. DNA meets the criteria for the genetic material, 187
10.5. DNA is a double helix, 188
DNA Can Be Duplicated, 190
10.6. DNA replication is semiconservative, 190
10.7. Many different proteins help DNA replicate, 191
Genes Specify the Makeup of Proteins, 192
10.8. Genes are linked to proteins, 192
10.9. The making of a protein requires transcription and translation, 192
10.10. The genetic code for amino acids is a triplet code, 193
10.11. During transcription, a gene passes its coded information to an mRNA, 194
10.12. In eukaryotes, an mRNA is processed before leaving the nucleus, 195
10.13. During translation, each transfer RNA carries a particular amino acid, 196
10.14. Translation occurs at ribosomes in cytoplasm, 197
10.15. Initiation begins the process of protein production, 198
10.16. Elongation builds a polypeptide one amino acid at a time, 198
10.17. Let's review gene expression, 199
Mutations Are Changes in the Sequence of DNA Bases, 200
10.18. Mutations affect genetic information and expression, 200
10.19. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Many agents can cause mutations, 201
10.20. How Science Progresses Transposons are “jumping genes”, 202
11. Regulation of Gene Activity, 206
Moth and Butterfly Wings Tell a Story, 207
Gene Expression Is Controlled in Prokaryotic Cells, 208
11.1. DNA-binding proteins turn genes on and off in prokaryotes, 208
Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes Causes Specialized Cells, 209
11.2. Eukaryotic cells are specialized, 209
11.3. Plants are cloned from a single cell, 209
11.4. Animals are cloned using a donor nucleus, 210
11.5. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Animal cloning has benefits and drawbacks, 211
Control of Gene Expression Is Varied in Eukaryotes, 212
11.6. Chromatin is highly condensed in chromosomes, 212
11.7. The genes in highly condensed chromatin are not expressed, 212
11.8. DNA-binding proteins regulate transcription in eukaryotes, 213
11.9. mRNA processing can affect gene expression, 214
11.10. Control of gene expression also occurs in the cytoplasm, 214
11.11. Synopsis of gene expression control in eukaryotes, 215
Gene Expression Is Controlled During Development, 216
11.12. Genes are turned on sequentially during development, 216
11.13. Homeotic genes and apoptosis occur in a wide range of animals, 217
Genetic Mutations Cause Cancer, 218
11.14. When cancer develops, two types of genes are out of control, 218
11.15. Faulty gene products interfere with signal transduction when cancer develops, 219
11.16. Cancer develops and becomes malignant gradually, 220
12. Biotechnology and Genomics, 224
Witnessing Genetic Engineering, 225
DNA Can Be Cloned, 226
12.1. Genes can be isolated and cloned, 226
12.2. Specific DNA sequences can be cloned, 227
Organisms Can Be Genetically Modified, 228
12.3. Bacteria are modified to make a product or perform a service, 228
12.4. How Science Progresses Making cheese—Genetic engineering comes to the rescue, 228
12.5. Plants are genetically modified to increase yield or to produce a product, 229
12.6. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Are genetically engineered foods safe?, 230
12.7. Animals are genetically modified to enhance traits or obtain useful products, 231
12.8. A person's genome can be modified, 232
12.9. How Science Progresses Gene therapy trials have varying degrees of success, 233
The Human Genome Can Be Manipulated, 234
12.10. The human genome has been sequenced, 234
12.11. How Biology Impacts Our Lives New cures are on the horizon, 235
12.12. Proteomics and bioinformatics are new endeavors, 236
12.13. Functional and comparative genomics, 236
Biological Viewpoints Genes Control the Traits of Organisms, 240
Part III. Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their Environment, 242
13. Darwin and Evolution, 242
The “Vice Versa” of Animals and Plants, 243
Darwin Developed a Natural Selection Hypothesis, 244
13.1. Darwin made a trip around the world, 244
13.2. Others had offered ideas about evolution before Darwin, 245
13.3. Artificial selection mimics natural selection, 246
13.4. Darwin formulated natural selection as a mechanism for evolution, 246
13.5. How Science Progresses Wallace independently formulated a natural selection hypothesis, 247
13.6. How Science Progresses Natural selection can be witnessed, 248
The Evidence for Evolution Is Strong, 249
13.7. Fossils provide a record of the past, 249
13.8. Fossils are evidence for common descent, 250
13.9. Anatomic evidence supports common descent, 251
13.10. Biogeographic evidence supports common descent, 252
13.11. Molecular evidence supports common descent, 252
Population Genetics Tells Us When Microevolution Occurs, 253
13.12. A Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is not expected, 253
13.13. Both mutations and sexual recombination produce variations, 254
13.14. Nonrandom mating and gene flow can contribute to microevolution, 254
13.15. The effects of genetic drift are unpredictable, 255
13.16. Natural selection can be stabilizing, directional, or disruptive, 256
13.17. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Stabilizing selection helps maintain harmful alleles, 258
14. Speciation and Evolution, 262
Hybrid Animals Do Exist, 263
Evolution of Diversity Requires Speciation, 264
14.1. Species have been defined in more than one way, 264
14.2. Reproductive barriers maintain genetic differences between species, 266
Origin of Species Usually Requires Geographic Separation, 268
14.3. Allopatric speciation utilizes a geographic barrier, 268
14.4. Adaptive radiation produces many related species, 270
Origin of Species Can Occur in One Place, 271
14.5. Speciation occasionally occurs without a geographic barrier, 271
14.6. How Science Progresses Artificial selection produced corn, 272
The Fossil Record Shows Both Gradual and Rapid Speciation, 273
14.7. Speciation occurs at different tempos, 273
14.8. How Science Progresses The Burgess Shale hosts a diversity of life, 274
Developmental Genes Provide a Mechanism for Rapid Speciation, 276
14.9. Gene expression can influence development, 276
Speciation Is Not Goal-Oriented, 278
14.10. Evolution is not directed toward any particular end, 278
15. The History and Classification of Life on Earth, 282
Motherhood Among Dinosaurs, 283
The Fossil Record Reveals the History of Life on Earth, 284
15.1. The geologic timescale is based on the fossil record, 284
15.2. How Science Progresses The geologic clock can help put Earth's history in perspective, 286
15.3. Continental drift has affected the history of life, 286
15.4. Mass extinctions have affected the history of life, 288
Systematics Traces Evolutionary Relationships, 290
15.5. Organisms can be classified into categories, 290
15.6. Linnaean classification reflects phylogeny, 291
15.7. Certain types of data are used to trace phylogeny, 292
15.8. Phylogenetic cladistics and evolutionary systematics use the same data differently, 294
The Three-Domain Classification System Is Widely Accepted, 296
15.9. This text uses the three-domain system of classifying organisms, 296
16. Evolution of Microbial Life, 300
At Your Service: Viruses and Bacteria, 301
Viruses Reproduce in Living Cells, 302
16.1. Viruses have a simple structure, 302
16.2. Some viruses reproduce inside bacteria, 302
16.3. How Science Progresses Viruses are responsible for a number of plant diseases, 304
16.4. Viruses reproduce inside animal cells and cause diseases, 305
16.5. The AIDS virus exemplifies RNA retroviruses, 306
16.6. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Humans suffer from emerging viral diseases, 307
The First Cells Originated on Early Earth, 308
16.7. Experiments show how small organic molecules may have first formed, 308
16.8. RNA may have been the first macromolecule, 309
16.9. Protocells preceded the first true cells, 310
Both Bacteria and Archaea Are Prokaryotes, 311
16.10. Prokaryotes have particular structural features, 311
16.11. Prokaryotes have a common reproductive strategy, 312
16.12. How genes are transferred in bacteria, 313
16.13. Prokaryotes have various means of nutrition, 314
16.14. The cyanobacteria are ecologically important organisms, 315
16.15. Some archaea live in extreme environments, 316
16.16. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Prokaryotes have environmental and medical importance, 317
16.17. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Disease-causing microbes can be biological weapons, 318
17. Evolution of Protists, 322
Protists Cause Disease Too, 323
Protists May Represent the Oldest Eukaryotic Cells, 324
17.1. Eukaryotic organelles probably arose by endosymbiosis, 324
17.2. Protists are a diverse group, 324
17.3. How Science Progresses How can the protists be classified?, 326
Protozoans Are Heterotrophic Protists with Various Means of Locomotion, 327
17.4. Protozoans called flagellates move by flagella, 327
17.5. Protozoans called amoeboids move by pseudopods, 328
17.6. Protozoans called ciliates move by cilia, 329
17.7. Protozoans called sporozoans are not motile, 330
Some Protists Have Moldlike Characteristics, 331
17.8. The diversity of protists includes slime molds and water molds, 331
Algae Are Photosynthetic Protists of Environmental Importance, 332
17.9. The diatoms and dinoflagellates are significant algae in the oceans, 332
17.10. Red algae and brown algae are multicellular, 333
17.11. Green algae are ancestral to plants, 334
17.12. How Science Progresses Life cycles among the algae have many variations, 336
18. Evolution of Plants and Fungi, 340
Some Plants Are Carnivorous, 341
The Evolution of Plants Spans 500 Million Years, 342
18.1. Evidence suggests that plants evolved from green algae, 342
18.2. The evolution of plants is marked by four innovations, 342
18.3. Plants have an alternation of generations life cycle, 344
18.4. Sporophyte dominance was adaptive to a dry land environment, 344
Plants Are Adapted to the Land Environment, 346
18.5. Bryophytes are nonvascular plants in which the gametophyte is dominant, 346
18.6. Ferns and their allies have a dominant vascular sporophyte, 348
18.7. Most gymnosperms bear cones on which the seeds are “naked”, 350
18.8. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Carboniferous forests became the coal we use today, 352
18.9. Angiosperms are the flowering plants, 353
18.10. The flowers of angiosperms produce “covered” seeds, 354
18.11. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Flowering plants provide many services, 356
Fungi Have Their Own Evolutionary History, 358
18.12. Fungi differ from plants and animals, 358
18.13. Fungi have mutualistic relationships with algae and plants, 359
18.14. Fungi occur in three main groups, 360
18.15. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Fungi have economic and medical importance, 362
19. Evolution of Animals, 366
The Secret Life of Bats, 367
Key Innovations Distinguish Invertebrate Groups, 368
19.1. Animals have distinctive characteristics, 368
19.2. Animals most likely have a protistan ancestor, 369
19.3. The traditional evolutionary tree of animals is based on seven key innovations, 371
19.4. How Science Progresses Molecular data suggest a new evolutionary tree for animals, 372
19.5. Some animal groups are invertebrates and some are vertebrates, 373
19.6. Sponges are multicellular invertebrates, 374
19.7. Cnidarians have true tissues, 375
19.8. Free-living flatworms have bilateral symmetry, 376
19.9. Some flatworms are parasitic, 377
19.10. Roundworms have a pseudocoelom and a complete digestive tract, 378
19.11. A coelom gives complex animal groups certain advantages, 379
19.12. Molluscs have a three-part body plan, 380
19.13. Annelids are the segmented worms, 381
19.14. Arthropods have jointed appendages, 382
19.15. Well known arthropods other than insects, 383
19.16. Insects, the largest group of arthropods, are adapted to living on land, 384
19.17. Echinoderms are radially symmetrical as adults, 385
Further Innovations Allowed Vertebrates to Invade the Land Environment, 386
19.18. Four features characterize chordates, 386
19.19. Invertebrate chordates have a notochord as adults, 386
19.20. The evolutionary tree of vertebrates is based on five key features, 387
19.21. Jaws and lungs evolved among the fishes, 388
19.22. Amphibians are tetrapods that can move on land, 389
19.23. Reptiles have an amniotic egg and can reproduce on land, 390
19.24. Birds have feathers and are endotherms, 391
19.25. Mammals have hair and mammary glands, 392
19.26. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Many vertebrates provide medical treatments for humans, 394
20. Evolution of Humans, 398
Lucy's Legacy, 399
Humans Share Characteristics with All the Other Primates, 400
20.1. Primates are adapted to live in trees, 400
20.2. All primates evolved from a common ancestor, 403
Humans Have an Upright Stance and Eventually a Large Brain, 404
20.3. Early hominids could stand upright, 404
20.4. Australopithecines had a small brain, 406
20.5. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Origins of the genus Homo, 407
20.6. Early Homo had a large brain, 408
20.7. How Science Progresses Biocultural evolution began with Homo, 409
Homo sapiens Is the Last Twig on the Primate Evolutionary Bush, 410
20.8. The Neandertal and Cro-Magnon people coexisted for 12,000 years, 410
20.9. The particulars of Homo sapiens evolution are being studied, 410
20.10. How Science Progresses Cro-Magnons made good use of tools, 412
20.11. How Science Progresses Agriculture made modern civilizations possible, 412
Today's Humans Belong to One Species, 414
20.12. Humans have different ethnicities, 414
Biological Viewpoints Organisms Are Related and Adapted to Their Environment, 418
Part IV. Plants Are Homeostatic, 420
21. Plant Organization and Homeostasis, 420
What Do Forests Have to Do with Global Warming?, 421
Plants Have Three Vegetative Organs, 422
21.1. Flowering plants typically have roots, stems, and leaves, 422
21.2. Flowering plants are either monocots or eudicots, 424
21.3. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Monocots serve humans well, 425
The Same Plant Cells and Tissues Are Found in All Plant Organs, 426
21.4. Plants have specialized cells and tissues, 426
21.5. The three types of plant tissues are found in each organ, 428
Plant Growth Is Either Primary or Secondary, 430
21.6. Primary growth lengthens the root and shoot systems, 430
21.7. Secondary growth widens roots and stems, 432
21.8. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Wood has been a part of human history, 433
Leaf Anatomy Facilitates Photosynthesis, 434
21.9. Leaves are organized to carry on photosynthesis, 434
Plants Maintain Internal Equilibrium, 435
21.10. The organization of plants fosters homeostasis, 435
21.11. Regulatory and other mechanisms help plants maintain homeostasis, 435
22. Transport and Nutrition in Plants, 440
Plants Can Adapt Too, 441
Plants Are Organized to Transport Water and Solutes, 442
22.1. Transport begins in both the leaves and the roots of plants, 442
22.2. How Science Progresses Competition for resources is one aspect of biodiversity, 443
Xylem Transport Depends on the Properties of Water, 444
22.3. Water is pulled up in xylem by evaporation from leaves, 444
22.4. Guard cells regulate water loss at leaves, 446
22.5. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Plants can clean up toxic messes, 447
Phloem Function Depends on Membrane Transport, 448
22.6. Phloem carries organic molecules, 448
22.7. The pressure-flow model explains phloem transport, 448
Plants Require Good Nutrition and Therefore Good Soil, 450
22.8. Certain nutrients are essential to plants, 450
22.9. Roots are specialized for the uptake of water and minerals, 452
22.10. Soil has distinct characteristics, 453
22.11. Plants absorb minerals from the soil, 453
22.12. Adaptations of plants help them acquire nutrients, 454
23. Control of Growth and Responses in Plants, 458
Recovering Slowly, 459
Plant Hormones Regulate Plant Growth and Development, 460
23.1. Hormones act by utilizing signal transduction pathways, 460
23.2. Auxins promote growth and cell elongation, 460
23.3. Gibberellins control stem elongation, 462
23.4. Cytokinins stimulate cell division and differentiation, 463
23.5. Abscisic acid suppresses growth of buds and closes stomata, 464
23.6. Ethylene stimulates the ripening of fruits, 465
Plants Respond to Environmental Stimuli, 466
23.7. Plants have many ways of responding to their external environment, 466
23.8. Tropisms occur when plants respond to stimuli, 466
23.9. Turgor and sleep movements are complex responses, 468
23.10. Flowering is a response to the photoperiod in some plants, 470
23.11. Response to the photoperiod requires phytochrome, 471
23.12. Plants respond to the biotic environment, 472
23.13. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Eloy Rodriguez has discovered many medicinal plants, 474
24. Reproduction in Plants, 478
With a Little Help, 479
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants Is Suitable to the Land Environment, 480
24.1. Plants have a sexual life cycle called alternation of generations, 480
24.2. Pollination and fertilization bring gametes together during sexual reproduction, 482
Seeds Contain a New Diploid Generation, 484
24.3. A sporophyte embryo and its cotyledons develop inside a seed, 484
24.4. The ovary becomes a fruit, which assists in sporophyte dispersal, 485
24.5. With seed germination, the life cycle is complete, 486
Plants Can Also Reproduce Asexually, 487
24.6. Plants have various ways of reproducing asexually, 487
24.7. Cloning of plants in tissue culture assists agriculture, 488
Biological Viewpoints Plants Are Homeostatic, 492
Part V. Animals Are Homeostatic, 494
25. Animal Organization and Homeostasis, 494
Staying Warm, Staying Cool, 495
The Structure of Tissues Suits Their Function, 496
25.1. Levels of biological organization are evident in animals, 496
Four Types of Tissues Are Common in the Animal Body, 496
25.2. Epithelial tissue covers organs and lines body cavities, 496
25.3. Connective tissue connects and supports other tissues, 498
25.4. Muscular tissue is contractile and moves body parts, 500
25.5. Nervous tissue communicates with and regulates the functions of the body's organs, 501
25.6. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Will nerve regeneration reverse a spinal cord injury?, 502
Organs, Composed of Tissues, Work Together in Organ Systems, 503
25.7. Each organ has a specific structure and function, 503
All Organ Systems Contribute to Homeostasis in Animals, 504
25.8. Several organs work together to carry out the functions of an organ system, 504
25.9. How Science Progresses Organs for transplant may come from various sources, 506
25.10. Homeostasis is the constancy of the internal environment, 507
25.11. Homeostasis is achieved through negative feedback mechanisms, 508
26. Coordination by Neural Signaling, 512
Getting a Head, 513
Most Animals Have a Nervous System That Allows Responses to Stimuli, 514
26.1. Invertebrates reflect an evolutionary trend toward bilateral symmetry and cephalization, 514
26.2. Humans have well-developed central and peripheral nervous systems, 516
Neurons Process and Transmit Information, 517
26.3. Neurons are the functional units of a nervous system, 517
26.4. Neurons have a resting potential across their membranes when they are not active, 518
26.5. Neurons have an action potential across axon membranes when they are active, 518
26.6. Propagation of an action potential is speedy, 519
26.7. Communication between neurons occurs at synapses, 520
26.8. Neurotransmitters can be stimulatory or inhibitory, 520
26.9. Integration is a summing up of stimulatory and inhibitory signals, 521
26.10. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Drugs that interfere with neurotransmitter release or uptake may be abused, 522
The Vertebrate Central Nervous System (CNS) Consists of the Spinal Cord and Brain, 524
26.11. The human spinal cord and brain function together, 524
26.12. The cerebrum performs integrative activities, 525
26.13. The other parts of the brain have specialized functions, 526
26.14. The limbic system is involved in memory and learning as well as in emotions, 527
The Vertebrate Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Consists of Nerves, 528
26.15. The peripheral nervous system contains cranial and spinal nerves, 528
26.16. In the somatic system, reflexes allow us to respond quickly to stimuli, 529
26.17. In the autonomic system, the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions control the actions of internal organs, 530
27. Sense Organs, 534
The Eyes Have It, 535
Sensory Receptors Respond to Stimuli, 536
27.1. Sensory receptors can be divided into five categories, 536
27.2. Sensory receptors communicate with the CNS, 537
Chemoreceptors Are Sensitive to Chemicals, 538
27.3. Chemoreceptors are widespread in the animal kingdom, 538
27.4. Mammalian taste receptors are located in the mouth, 538
27.5. Mammalian olfactory receptors are located in the nose, 539
Photoreceptors Are Sensitive to Light, 540
27.6. The vertebrate eye is a camera-type eye, 540
27.7. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Protect your eyes from the sun, 541
27.8. The lens helps bring an object into focus, 541
27.9. How Biology Impacts Our Lives The inability to form a clear image can be corrected, 542
27.10. The retina sends information to the visual cortex, 542
Mechanoreceptors Are Involved in Hearing and Balance, 544
27.11. The mammalian ear has three main regions, 544
27.12. Hair cells in the inner ear detect sound vibrations, 545
27.13. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Protect your ears from loud noises, 546
27.14. The sense of balance occurs in the inner ear, 546
27.15. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Motion sickness can be disturbing, 548
27.16. Other animals respond to motion, 548
28. Locomotion and Support Systems, 552
Skeletal Remains Reveal All, 553
Animal Skeletons Support, Move, and Protect the Body, 554
28.1. Animal skeletons can be hydrostatic, external, or internal, 554
28.2. Mammals have an endoskeleton that serves many functions, 555
The Mammalian Skeleton Is a Series of Bones Connected at Joints, 556
28.3. The bones of the axial skeleton lie in the midline of the body, 556
28.4. The appendicular skeleton consists of bones in the girdles and limbs, 558
28.5. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Avoidance of osteoporosis requires good nutrition and exercise, 559
28.6. Bones are composed of living tissues, 560
28.7. Joints occur where bones meet, 561
28.8. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Joint disorders can be repaired, 562
Animal Movement Is Dependent on Muscle Cell Contraction, 563
28.9. Vertebrate skeletal muscles have various functions, 563
28.10. Skeletal muscles contract in units, 564
28.11. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Exercise has many benefits, 565
28.12. A muscle cell contains many myofibrils, 566
28.13. Sarcomeres shorten when muscle cells contract, 566
28.14. Axon terminals bring about muscle contraction, 567
28.15. Muscles have three sources of ATP for contraction, 568
28.16. Some muscle cells are fast-twitch and some are slow-twitch, 568
29. Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems, 572
Not All Animals Have Red Blood, 573
A Circulatory System Helps Maintain Homeostasis, 574
29.1. A circulatory system serves the needs of cells, 574
29.2. Some invertebrates do not have a circulatory system, 574
29.3. Other invertebrates have an open or a closed circulatory system, 575
29.4. All vertebrates have a closed circulatory system, 576
The Mammalian Cardiovascular System Consists of the Heart and Blood Vessels, 577
29.5. The mammalian heart has four chambers, 577
29.6. The heartbeat is rhythmic, 578
29.7. Blood vessel structure is suited to its function, 579
29.8. Blood vessels form two circuits in mammals, 580
29.9. Blood pressure is essential to the flow of blood in each circuit, 581
29.10. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Blood vessel deterioration results in cardiovascular disease, 582
29.11. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Cardiovascular disease can often be prevented, 582
Blood Has Vital Functions, 584
29.12. Blood is a liquid tissue, 584
29.13. Blood clotting involves platelets, 585
29.14. How Science Progresses Adult stem cells include blood stem cells, 586
29.15. Capillary exchange is vital to cells, 587
29.16. Blood types must be matched for transfusions, 588
30. Lymph Transport and Immunity, 592
AIDS Destroys the Immune System, 593
The Lymphatic System Functions in Transport and Immunity, 594
30.1. Lymphatic vessels transport lymph, 594
30.2. Lymphatic organs defend the body, 595
The Body's First Line of Defense Against Disease Is Nonspecific and Innate, 596
30.3. Barriers to entry, complement proteins, and certain blood cells are first responders, 596
30.4. How Biology Impacts Our Lives A fever can be beneficial, 597
30.5. The inflammatory response is a localized response to invasion, 598
The Body's Second Line of Defense Against Disease Is Specific to the Pathogen, 599
30.6. The second line of defense targets specific antigens, 599
30.7. Specific immunity can be active or passive, 599
30.8. Lymphocytes are directly responsible for specific defenses, 600
30.9. Antibody-mediated immunity involves B cells, 601
30.10. Cell-mediated immunity involves several types of T cells, 602
30.11. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Monoclonal antibodies have many uses, 604
Abnormal Immune Responses Can Have Health Consequences, 605
30.12. Tissue rejection makes transplanting organs difficult, 605
30.13. Autoimmune disorders are long-term illnesses, 605
30.14. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Allergic reactions can be debilitating and even fatal, 606
31. Digestive Systems and Nutrition, 610
How to Tell a Carnivore from an Herbivore, 611
Animals Must Obtain and Process Their Food, 612
31.1. A digestive system carries out ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination, 612
31.2. Animals exhibit a variety of feeding strategies, 613
31.3. A complete digestive tract has specialized compartments, 614
31.4. Both mechanical and chemical digestion occur in the mouth, 616
31.5. The esophagus conducts food to the stomach, 617
31.6. Food storage and chemical digestion take place in the stomach, 618
31.7. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Bacteria contribute to the cause of ulcers, 618
31.8. In the small intestine, chemical digestion concludes, and absorption of nutrients occurs, 619
31.9. The pancreas and the liver contribute to chemical digestion, 620
31.10. The stomach and duodenum are endocrine glands, 621
31.11. The large intestine absorbs water and prepares wastes for elimination, 621
Good Nutrition and Diet Lead to Better Health, 622
31.12. Carbohydrates are nutrients that provide immediate energy as well as fiber, 622
31.13. Lipids are nutrients that supply long-term energy, 623
31.14. Proteins are nutrients that supply building blocks for cells, 623
31.15. Minerals have various roles in the body, 624
31.16. Vitamins help regulate metabolism, 625
31.17. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Nutritional labels allow evaluation of a food's content, 626
31.18. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Certain disorders are associated with obesity, 626
31.19. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Eating disorders appear to have a psychological component, 628
32. Gas Exchange and Transport in Animals, 632
Free-Diving Is Dangerous, 633
Animals Have Gas-Exchange Surfaces, 634
32.1. Respiration involves several steps, 634
32.2. External respiration surfaces must be moist, 634
32.3. Gills are an efficient gas-exchange surface in water, 636
32.4. The tracheal system in insects permits direct gas exchange, 637
32.5. The human respiratory system utilizes lungs as a gas-exchange surface, 638
32.6. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Questions about tobacco, smoking, and health, 639
Ventilation Precedes Transport, 640
32.7. Breathing brings air into and out of the lungs, 640
32.8. Our breathing rate can be modified, 641
32.9. External and internal respiration require no energy, 642
32.10. Hemoglobin is involved in transport of gases, 643
32.11. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Respiratory disorders have resulted from breathing 9/11 dust, 644
33. Osmoregulation and Excretion, 648
Do Coral Reef Animals Regulate?, 649
Metabolic Waste Products Have Different Advantages, 650
33.1. The nitrogenous waste product of animals varies according to the environment, 650
33.2. Many invertebrates have organs of excretion, 651
Osmoregulation Varies According to the Environment, 652
33.3. Aquatic vertebrates have adaptations to maintain the water-salt balance of their bodies, 652
33.4. Terrestrial vertebrates have adaptations to maintain the water-salt balance of their bodies, 653
The Kidney Is an Organ of Homeostasis, 654
33.5. The kidneys are a part of the urinary system, 654
33.6. The mammalian kidney contains many tubules, 654
33.7. Urine formation requires three steps, 656
33.8. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Urinalysis can detect drug use, 657
33.9. The kidneys concentrate urine to maintain water-salt balance, 658
33.10. Lungs and kidneys maintain acid-base balance, 659
33.11. How Science Progresses The artificial kidney machine makes up for faulty kidneys, 660
33.12. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Dehydration and water intoxication occur in humans, 660
34. Coordination by Hormone Signaling, 664
Pheromones Among Us, 665
The Endocrine System Utilizes Chemical Signals, 666
34.1. The endocrine and nervous systems work together, 666
34.2. Hormones affect cellular metabolism, 667
34.3. The vertebrate endocrine system includes diverse hormones, 668
The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Are Central to the Endocrine System, 670
34.4. The hypothalamus is a part of the nervous and endocrine systems, 670
34.5. The anterior pituitary produces nontropic and tropic hormones, 671
Hormones Regulate Metabolism and Homeostasis, 672
34.6. The adrenal glands respond to stress, 672
34.7. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Glucocorticoid therapy can lead to Cushing syndrome, 673
34.8. The pancreas regulates the blood sugar level, 674
34.9. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Diabetes is becoming a very common ailment, 674
34.10. The pineal gland is involved in biorhythms, 675
34.11. The thyroid regulates development and increases the metabolic rate, 676
34.12. The thyroid and the parathyroids regulate the blood calcium level, 676
35. Reproduction and Development, 680
How to Do It on Land, 681
Reproduction in Animals Is Varied, 682
35.1. Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur among animals, 682
35.2. Development in water and on land occurs among animals, 683
Humans Are Adapted to Reproducing on Land, 684
35.3. Testes are male gonads, 684
35.4. Production of sperm and male sex hormones occurs in the testes, 685
35.5. Ovaries are female gonads, 686
35.6. Production of oocytes and female sex hormones occurs in the ovaries, 687
35.7. The ovarian cycle drives the uterine cycle, 688
35.8. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Sexual activity can transmit disease, 689
35.9. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Numerous birth control methods are available, 690
35.10. How Biology Impacts Our Lives Reproductive technologies are available to help the infertile, 691
Vertebrates Have Similar Early Developmental Stages and Processes, 692
35.11. Cellular stages of development precede tissue stages, 692
35.12. Tissue stages of development precede organ stages, 693
35.13. Organ stages of development occur after tissue stages, 694
35.14. Cellular differentiation begins with cytoplasmic segregation, 695
35.15. Morphogenesis involves induction also, 696
Human Development Is Divided into Embryonic Development and Fetal Development, 697
35.16. Extraembryonic membranes are critical to human development, 697
35.17. Embryonic development involves tissue and organ formation, 698
35.18. Fetal development involves refinement and weight gain, 700
35.19. Pregnancy ends with the birth of the newborn, 702
Biological Viewpoints Animals Are Homeostatic, 706
Part VI. Organisms Live in Ecosystems, 708
36. Population Ecology, 708
When a Population Grows Too Large, 709
Ecology Studies Where and How Organisms Live in the Biosphere, 710
36.1. Ecology is studied at various levels, 710
Populations Are Not Static—They Change Over Time, 711
36.2. Density and distribution are aspects of population structure, 711
36.3. The growth rate results in population size changes, 712
36.4. Survivorship curves illustrate age-related changes, 712
36.5. Age structure diagrams divide a population into age groupings, 713
36.6. Patterns of population growth can be described graphically, 714
Environmental Interactions Influence Population Size, 715
36.7. Density-independent factors affect population size, 715
36.8. Density-dependent factors affect large populations more, 716
The Life History Pattern Can Predict Extinction, 717
36.9. Life history patterns consider several population characteristics, 717
36.10. Certain species are more apt to become extinct than others, 718
Human Populations Vary Between Overpopulation and Overconsumption, 719
36.11. World population growth is exponential, 719
36.12. Age distributions in MDCs and LDCs are different, 720
37. Behavioral Ecology, 724
For the Benefit of All, 725
Both Innate and Learned Behavior Can Be Adaptive, 726
37.1. Inheritance influences behavior, 726
37.2. Learning can also influence behavior, 728
37.3. Associative learning links behavior to stimuli, 729
Reproductive Behavior Can Also Be Adaptive, 730
37.4. Sexual selection can influence mating and other behaviors, 730
Social Behavior Can Increase Fitness, 732
37.5. Sociobiology studies the adaptive value of societies, 732
Modes of Communication Vary with the Environment, 734
37.6. Communication with others involves the senses, 734
37.7. How Science Progresses Do animals have emotions?, 736
38. Community and Ecosystem Ecology, 740
Ridding the Land of Waste, 741
A Community Contains Several Interacting Populations in the Same Locale, 742
38.1. Competition can lead to resource partitioning, 742
38.2. Predator-prey interactions affect both populations, 744
38.3. Parasitism benefits one population at another's expense, 746
38.4. Commensalism benefits only one population, 746
38.5. How Science Progresses Coevolution requires interaction between two species, 747
38.6. Mutualism benefits both populations, 748
A Community Develops and Changes Over Time, 749
38.7. How Science Progresses The study of island biogeography pertains to biodiversity, 749
38.8. During ecological succession, community composition and diversity change, 750
An Ecosystem Is a Community Interacting with the Physical Environment, 752
38.9. Ecosystems have biotic and abiotic components, 752
38.10. Energy flow and chemical cycling characterize ecosystems, 753
38.11. Energy flow involves food webs, 754
38.12. Ecological pyramids are based on trophic levels, 755
38.13. Chemical cycling includes reservoirs, exchange pools, and the biotic community, 756
38.14. The phosphorus cycle is sedimentary, 756
38.15. The nitrogen cycle is gaseous, 757
38.16. The carbon cycle is gaseous, 758
39. Major Ecosystems of the Biosphere, 762
Life Under Glass, 763
On Land, the Biosphere Is Organized into Terrestrial Ecosystems, 764
39.1. Major terrestrial ecosystems are characterized by particular climates, 764
39.2. The tundra is cold and dark much of the year, 765
39.3. Coniferous forests are dominated by gymnosperms, 765
39.4. Temperate deciduous forests have abundant life, 766
39.5. Temperate grasslands have extreme seasons, 766
39.6. Savannas have wet-dry seasons, 767
39.7. Deserts have very low annual rainfall, 767
39.8. Tropical rain forests are warm with abundant rainfall, 768
39.9. Solar radiation and winds influence climate, 769
39.10. Topography and other effects also influence climate, 770
Fresh Water and Salt Water Are Organized into Aquatic Ecosystems, 771
39.11. Fresh water flows into salt water, 771
39.12. Marine ecosystems include those of the coast and the ocean, 772
39.13. Ocean currents affect climates, 774
39.14. El Niño–Southern Oscillation alters weather patterns, 774
40. Conservation of Biodiversity, 778
Trouble in Paradise, 779
Conservation Biology Focuses on Understanding and Protecting Biodiversity, 780
40.1. Conservation biology is a practical science, 780
40.2. Biodiversity is more than counting the total number of species, 780
Biodiversity Has Direct Value and Indirect Value for Human Beings, 782
40.3. The direct value of biodiversity is becoming better recognized, 782
40.4. The indirect value of biodiversity is immense, 784
The Causes of Today's Extinctions Are Known, 785
40.5. Habitat loss is a major cause of wildlife extinctions, 785
40.6. Introduction of alien species contributes to extinctions, 786
40.7. Pollution contributes to extinctions, 787
40.8. Overexploitation contributes to extinctions, 787
40.9. Disease contributes to extinctions, 788
Conservation Techniques Require Much Effort and Expertise, 789
40.10. Habitat preservation is of primary importance, 789
40.11. Habitat restoration is sometimes necessary, 790
Biological Viewpoints Organisms Live in Ecosystems, 794
Appendix A. Answers to Check Your Progress and Testing Yourself, A-1
Appendix B. Metric System, A-12
Appendix C. Periodic Table of the Elements, A-13
Glossary, G-1
Credits, C-1
Index, I-1

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