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How Does Earth Work? Physical Geology and the Process of Science

by Gary A. Smith - University of New Mexico; Aurora Pun - University of New Mexico

NOT AVAILABLE FOR PURCHASE.

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Copyright, iv
About the Authors, v
Thank You, vi
Preface, ii
1. Why Study Earth?, xxiv
1.1. What Is Geology?, 3
1.2. Why Study Geology?, 6
1.3. How Do We Know . . . How to Study Earth?, 8
1.4. What Does the Principle of Uniformitarianism Mean?, 11
1.5. What Is the Theory of Plate Tectonics?, 13
1.6. How Does the Concept of Work Apply to Earth?, 15
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 19
Active Art, 20
Confirm Your Knowledge, 20
Confirm Your Understanding, 21
Key Terms, 21
I. Earth Materials: Classification, Origin, Uses, 22
2. Minerals: Building Blocks of the Planet, 22
2.1. What Are the Properties of Minerals?, 24
2.2. What Are Minerals Composed Of?, 28
2.3. How Do We Know . . . The Atomic Structure of Minerals?, 29
2.4. How Do Elements Combine to Make Minerals?, 31
2.5. What Is a Mineral?, 35
2.6. What Determines the Physical Properties of Minerals?, 36
2.7. What Are the Most Important Minerals?, 39
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 44
Extension Modules, 44
Confirm Your Knowledge, 45
Confirm Your Understanding, 45
Key Terms, 45
3. Rocks and Rock-Forming Processes, 46
3.1. How and Where Do Rocks Form?, 48
3.2. Can Rocks Be Classified According to the Processes that Form Them?, 53
3.3. How Do We Know . . . How to Determine Rock Origins?, 57
3.4. How Are the Rock Classes Related to One Another?, 61
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 62
Confirm Your Knowledge, 63
Confirm Your Understanding, 63
Key Terms, 63
4. Formation of Magma and Igneous Rocks, 64
4.1. What Are Igneous Processes?, 67
4.2. How Are Igneous Rocks Classified?, 68
4.3. Where Do Igneous Rocks Appear in a Landscape?, 73
4.4. How and Why Do Rocks Melt?, 82
4.5. How Do We Know . . . How Magma Is Made?, 85
4.6. How Does Magma Generation Connect to Plate Tectonics?, 87
4.7. What Makes Igneous Rock Compositions So Diverse?, 88
4.8. Why Are There Different Types of Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions?, 91
4.9. How Are Volcanoes Hazardous?, 93
4.10. Why Don’t All Magmas Erupt?, 95
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 99
Extension Modules, 100
Confirm Your Knowledge, 100
Confirm Your Understanding, 101
Key Terms, 101
5. Formation of Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks, 102
5.1. How and Why Do Rocks Disintegrate to Form Sediment?, 105
5.2. What Is the Link Between Weathering and Sediment?, 111
5.3. Why Are Fossils Found in Sedimentary Rocks?, 112
5.4. How Does Loose Sediment Become Sedimentary Rock?, 114
5.5. How Are Sedimentary Rocks Classified?, 116
5.6. How Do Sedimentary Rocks Reveal Ancient Environments?, 120
5.7. How Do We Know . . . How to Interpret Unseen Turbidity Currents?, 125
5.8. How Do Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks Connect?, 129
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 130
Active Art, 130
Extension Modules, 130
Confirm Your Knowledge, 131
Confirm Your Understanding, 131
Key Terms, 131
6. Formation of Metamorphic Rocks, 132
6.1. What Is Metamorphism?, 135
6.2. What Is the Role of Temperature in Metamorphism?, 137
6.3. What Is the Role of Pressure in Metamorphism?, 141
6.4. What Is the Role of Fluid in Metamorphism?, 145
6.5. Why Do Metamorphic Rocks Exist at the Surface?, 147
6.6. How Do We Know . . . How to Determine the Stability of Minerals?, 148
6.7. What Were the Conditions of Metamorphism?, 151
6.8. How Are Metamorphic Rocks Classified?, 152
6.9. What Was the Rock before It Was Metamorphosed?, 156
6.10. Where Does Metamorphism Occur?, 158
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 164
Active Art, 164
Extension Modules, 164
Confirm Your Knowledge, 165
Confirm Your Understanding, 165
Key Terms, 165
7. Earth Materials as Time Keepers, 166
7.1. How Do You Determine the Order of Events?, 168
7.2. How Are Geologic Events Placed in Relative Order?, 170
7.3. How Do Geologists Determine the Relative Ages of Rocks in Widely Separated Places?, 173
7.4. How Was the Geologic Time Scale Constructed?, 175
7.5. How Do You Recognize Gaps in the Rock Record?, 176
7.6. How Have Scientists Determined the Age of Earth?, 180
7.7. How Is the Absolute Age of a Rock Determined?, 183
7.8. How Do We Know . . . How to Determine Half-Lives and Decay Rates?, 189
7.9. How Do You Reconstruct Geologic History with Rocks?, 192
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 194
Active Art, 194
Extension Modules, 194
Confirm Your Knowledge, 195
Confirm Your Understanding, 195
Key Terms, 195
II. Earth’s Internal Processes, 196
8. Journey to the Center of Earth, 196
8.1. How Do Geologists Know about Rocks in Earth’s Interior?, 199
8.2. How Do Earthquakes Help Make Images of Earth’s Interior?, 203
8.3. How Do We Know . . . How to Determine Velocities of Seismic Waves in Rocks?, 209
8.4. What Composes the Interior of Earth?, 211
8.5. How Hot Is the Interior of Earth?, 216
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 220
Active Art, 220
Extension Modules, 220
Confirm Your Knowledge, 221
Confirm Your Understanding, 221
Key Terms, 221
9. Making Earth, 222
9.1. How Did Earth Form?, 224
9.2. How Did the Core and Mantle Form?, 232
9.3. How Does the Crust Form?, 234
9.4. How Did the Hydrosphere and Atmosphere Form?, 237
9.5. How Do We Know . . . The Hydrosphere Came from the Geosphere?, 240
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 242
Extension Modules, 243
Confirm Your Knowledge, 243
Confirm Your Understanding, 243
Key Terms, 243
10. Motion Inside Earth, 244
10.1. How Does Convection Work?, 246
10.2. What Does Mantle Convection Look Like?, 251
10.3. How Does Outer-Core Convection Generate the Magnetic Field?, 257
10.4. How Do We Know . . . Earth’s Core Is a Dynamo?, 262
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 265
Active Art, 266
Extension Modules, 266
Confirm Your Knowledge, 266
Confirm Your Understanding, 267
Key Terms, 267
III. Earth Deformation, 268
11. Deformation of Rocks, 268
11.1. What Do Deformed Rocks Look Like?, 270
11.2. How Are Resources Related to Geologic Structures?, 276
11.3. Why Do Rocks Deform?, 280
11.4. How Do We Know . . . Why Some Rocks Break and Others Flow?, 282
11.5. How Do Geologic Structures Relate to Stress, Strain, and Strength?, 286
11.6. How Does Strength Vary in the Lithosphere?, 289
11.7. How Do Earthquakes Relate to Rock Deformation?, 291
11.8. How Are Earthquakes Measured?, 295
11.9. Why Are Earthquakes Destructive?, 299
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 304
Active Art, 304
Extension Modules, 304
Confirm Your Knowledge, 305
Confirm Your Understanding, 305
Key Terms, 305
12. Global Tectonics: Plates and Plumes, 306
12.1. How Does Continental Drift Relate to Plate Tectonics?, 310
12.2. What Is the Evidence That Plates Are Rigid?, 311
12.3. What Is the Evidence That Plates Move Apart at Divergent Boundaries?, 316
12.4. What Is the Evidence That Subduction Occurs at Convergent Plate Boundaries?, 323
12.5. What Is the Evidence That Plates Slide Past One Another at Transform Plate Boundaries?, 330
12.6. What Does the Mantle-Plume Hypothesis Explain that Plate Tectonics Cannot Explain?, 333
12.7. How Do We Know . . . That Plates Move in Real Time?, 337
12.8. What Forces Cause Plate Motion and Plumes?, 342
12.9. What Are the Consequences of Plate Motion over Geologic Time?, 343
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 347
Active Art, 348
Extension Modules, 348
Confirm Your Knowledge, 348
Confirm Your Understanding, 349
Key Terms, 349
13. Tectonics and Surface Relief, 350
13.1. Why Are Continents High and Oceans Low?, 352
13.2. How Do We Know . . . That Mountains Have Roots?, 357
13.3. How Does Isostasy Relate to Active Geologic Processes?, 360
13.4. Why Does Sea Level Change?, 366
13.5. How and Where Do Mountains Form?, 368
13.6. How Does Mountain Building Relate to the Growth of Continents?, 373
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 380
Active Art, 380
Extension Modules, 380
Confirm Your Knowledge, 381
Confirm Your Understanding, 381
Key Terms, 381
IV. Surface And Near Surface Processes, 382
14. Soil Formation and Landscape Stability, 382
14.1. What Is Soil?, 385
14.2. What Distinguishes Soil Horizons?, 387
14.3. How Do Soils Form?, 390
14.4. What Factors Determine Soil Characteristics?, 392
14.5. What Are the Types of Soils?, 397
14.6. How Do We Know . . . That Soils Include Atmospheric Additions?, 402
14.7. How Do Human Activities Affect Soils?, 406
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 410
Confirm Your Knowledge, 411
Confirm Your Understanding, 411
Key Terms, 411
15. Mass Movements: Landscapes in Motion, 412
15.1. What Are the Characteristics of Mass Movements?, 415
15.2. What Causes Mass Movements?, 422
15.3. What Factors Determine Slope Stability?, 426
15.4. When Do Mass Movements Occur?, 429
15.5. How Do We Know . . . How to Map Mass-Movement Hazards?, 432
15.6. How Do Mass Movements Sculpt the Landscape?, 436
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 438
Active Art, 439
Confirm Your Knowledge, 439
Confirm Your Understanding, 439
Key Terms, 439
16. Streams: Flowing Water Shapes the Landscape, 440
16.1. Where Does the Water Come From?, 444
16.2. Where Does the Sediment Come From?, 447
16.3. How Do Streams Pick Up Sediment?, 449
16.4. How Do Streams Transport Sediment?, 452
16.5. Why Do Streams Deposit Sediment?, 453
16.6. Why Does a Stream Change along Its Course?, 455
16.7. What Factors Determine the Channel Pattern?, 458
16.8. How Does a Floodplain Form?, 460
16.9. Why Do Streams Flood?, 463
16.10. How Do We Know . . . the Extent of the “100-Year Flood”?, 465
16.11. How Do Human Activities Affect Streams?, 468
16.12. How Do Stream-Formed Landscapes Change through Geologic Time?, 471
16.13. How Do Lakes Form?, 475
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 477
Active Art, 478
Extension Modules, 478
Confirm Your Knowledge, 478
Confirm Your Understanding, 479
Key Terms, 479
17. Water Flowing Underground, 480
17.1. What Is Ground Water and Where Is It Found?, 482
17.2. Why and How Does Ground Water Flow?, 492
17.3. How Do We Know . . . How Fast Ground Water Moves?, 500
17.4. What Is the Composition of Ground Water?, 504
17.5. How Does Ground Water Shape the Landscape?, 507
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 513
Active Art, 513
Extension Modules, 513
Confirm Your Knowledge, 514
Confirm Your Understanding, 515
Key Terms, 515
18. Glaciers: Cold-Climate Sculptors of Continents, 516
18.1. What Is a Glacier?, 519
18.2. How Does Glacial Ice Form?, 523
18.3. How Does Ice Flow?, 524
18.4. How Do Glaciers Erode and Transport Sediment?, 528
18.5. How Do Glaciers Deposit Sediment?, 533
18.6. What Happens when Glaciers Reach the Ocean?, 537
18.7. How Do Valley Glaciers Modify the Landscape?, 539
18.8. How Do Ice Sheets Modify the Landscape?, 543
18.9. What Did North America Look Like during the Last Ice Age?, 548
18.10. How Do We Know . . . How to Determine When Ice Ages Happened?, 553
18.11. What Causes Ice Ages?, 557
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 561
Active Art, 562
Extension Modules, 562
Confirm Your Knowledge, 562
Confirm Your Understanding, 563
Key Terms, 563
19. Shorelines: Changing Landscapes Where Land Meets Sea, 564
19.1. What Factors Determine the Shape of a Shoreline?, 567
19.2. How Do Waves Form and Move in Water?, 569
19.3. How Do Waves Form Shoreline Landscapes?, 577
19.4. What Is the Role of Tides in Forming Coastal Landscapes?, 591
19.5. Why Does Shoreline Location Change through Time?, 595
19.6. How Do We Know . . . That Global Sea Level Is Rising?, 600
19.7. What Are the Consequences of Rising Sea Level?, 604
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 609
Active Art, 610
Extension Module, 610
Confirm Your Knowledge, 610
Confirm Your Understanding, 611
Key Terms, 611
20. Wind: A Global Geologic Process, 612
20.1. Why Does Wind Blow?, 616
20.2. Where Is Wind an Influential Process in the Landscape?, 620
20.3. What Determines the Locations of Deserts?, 622
20.4. How Does Wind Pick Up and Transport Sediment?, 625
20.5. How Does Wind Shape the Landscape?, 628
20.6. How Do We Know . . . That Wind Blows Dust Across Oceans?, 636
Where Are You and Where Are You Going?, 640
Active Art, 641
Extension Module, 641
Confirm Your Knowledge, 641
Confirm Your Understanding, 641
Key Terms, 641
A. Periodic Table of the Elements, A-1
B. Ions and Natural Isotopes that are Significant to Geologic Studies, A-2
C. Common Conversions, A-3
Glossary, A-4
Photo Credits, C-1
Chapter 1, C-2
Chapter 2, C-3
Chapter 3, C-4
Chapter 4, C-5
Chapter 5, C-6
Chapter 6, C-7
Chapter 7, C-9
Chapter 8, C-10
Chapter 9, C-11
Chapter 10, C-12
Chapter 11, C-13
Chapter 12, C-14
Chapter 13, C-15
Chapter 14, C-16
Chapter 15, C-17
Chapter 16, C-18
Chapter 17, C-19
Chapter 18, C-21
Chapter 19, C-22
Chapter 20, C-23
License Agreement, L-1

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