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Other bestselling titles by Andrew S. Tanenbaum, ii
Copyright, iv
Preface, xviii
1. Introduction, 1
1.1. Structured Computer Organization, 2
1.1.1. Languages, Levels, and Virtual Machines, 2
1.1.2. Contemporary Multilevel Machines, 5
1.1.3. Evolution of Multilevel Machines, 8
1.2. Milestones in Computer Architecture, 13
1.2.1. The Zeroth Generation—Mechanical Computers (1642–1945), 14
1.2.2. The First Generation—Vacuum Tubes (1945–1955), 16
1.2.3. The Second Generation—Transistors (1955–1965), 19
1.2.4. The Third Generation—Integrated Circuits (1965–1980), 22
1.2.5. The Fourth Generation—Very Large Scale Integration (1980-?), 23
1.2.6. The Fifth Generation—Invisible Computers, 26
1.3. The Computer Zoo, 27
1.3.1. Technological and Economic Forces, 27
1.3.2. The Computer Spectrum, 29
1.3.3. Disposable Computers, 29
1.3.4. Microcontrollers, 31
1.3.5. Game Computers, 33
1.3.6. Personal Computers, 34
1.3.7. Servers, 34
1.3.8. Collections of Workstations, 34
1.3.9. Mainframes, 36
1.4. Example Computer Families, 37
1.4.1. Introduction to the Pentium 4, 37
1.4.2. Introduction to the UltraSPARC III, 42
1.4.3. Introduction to the 8051, 44
1.5. Metric Units, 46
1.6. Outline of this Book, 47
2. Computer Systems Organization, 51
2.1. Processors, 51
2.1.1. CPU Organization, 52
2.1.2. Instruction Execution, 54
2.1.3. RISC versus CISC, 58
2.1.4. Design Principles for Modern Computers, 59
2.1.5. Instruction-Level Parallelism, 61
2.1.6. Processor-Level Parallelism, 65
2.2. Primary Memory, 69
2.2.1. Bits, 69
2.2.2. Memory Addresses, 70
2.2.3. Byte Ordering, 71
2.2.4. Error-Correcting Codes, 73
2.2.5. Cache Memory, 77
2.2.6. Memory Packaging and Types, 80
2.3. Secondary Memory, 81
2.3.1. Memory Hierarchies, 81
2.3.2. Magnetic Disks, 82
2.3.3. Floppy Disks, 86
2.3.4. IDE Disks, 86
2.3.5. SCSI Disks, 88
2.3.6. RAID, 89
2.3.7. CD-ROMs, 93
2.3.8. CD-Recordables, 97
2.3.9. CD-Rewritables, 99
2.3.10. DVD, 99
2.3.11. Blu-Ray, 102
2.4. Input/Output, 102
2.4.1. Buses, 102
2.4.2. Terminals, 105
2.4.3. Mice, 110
2.4.4. Printers, 112
2.4.5. Telecommunications Equipment, 117
2.4.6. Digital Cameras, 125
2.4.7. Character Codes, 127
2.5. Summary, 131
3. The Digital Logic Level, 135
3.1. Gates and Boolean Algebra, 135
3.1.1. Gates, 136
3.1.2. Boolean Algebra, 138
3.1.3. Implementation of Boolean Functions, 140
3.1.4. Circuit Equivalence, 141
3.2. Basic Digital Logic Circuits, 146
3.2.1. Integrated Circuits, 146
3.2.2. Combinational Circuits, 147
3.2.3. Arithmetic Circuits, 152
3.2.4. Clocks, 157
3.3. Memory, 159
3.3.1. Latches, 159
3.3.2. Flip-Flops, 161
3.3.3. Registers, 163
3.3.4. Memory Organization, 164
3.3.5. Memory Chips, 168
3.3.6. RAMs and ROMs, 171
3.4. CPU Chips and Buses, 173
3.4.1. CPU Chips, 174
3.4.2. Computer Buses, 176
3.4.3. Bus Width, 178
3.4.4. Bus Clocking, 180
3.4.5. Bus Arbitration, 184
3.4.6. Bus Operations, 187
3.5. Example CPU Chips, 189
3.5.1. The Pentium 4, 189
3.5.2. The UltraSPARC III, 196
3.5.3. The 8051, 200
3.6. Example Buses, 202
3.6.1. The ISA Bus, 203
3.6.2. The PCI Bus, 204
3.6.3. PCI Express, 212
3.6.4. The Universal Serial Bus, 217
3.7. Interfacing, 221
3.7.1. I/O Chips, 221
3.7.2. Address Decoding, 222
3.8. Summary, 225
4. The Microarchitecture Level, 231
4.1. An Example Microarchitecture, 231
4.1.1. The Data Path, 232
4.1.2. Microinstructions, 239
4.1.3. Microinstruction Control: The Mic-1, 241
4.2. An Example ISA: IJVM, 246
4.2.1. Stacks, 246
4.2.2. The IJVM Memory Model, 248
4.2.3. The IJVM Instruction Set, 250
4.2.4. Compiling Java to IJVM, 254
4.3. An Example Implementation, 255
4.3.1. Microinstructions and Notation, 255
4.3.2. Implementation of IJVM Using the Mic-1, 260
4.4. Design of the Microarchitecture Level, 271
4.4.1. Speed versus Cost, 271
4.4.2. Reducing the Execution Path Length, 273
4.4.3. A Design with Prefetching: The Mic-2, 281
4.4.4. A Pipelined Design: The Mic-3, 281
4.4.5. A Seven-Stage Pipeline: The Mic-4, 288
4.5. Improving Performance, 292
4.5.1. Cache Memory, 293
4.5.2. Branch Prediction, 299
4.5.3. Out-of-Order Execution and Register Renaming, 304
4.5.4. Speculative Execution, 309
4.6. Examples of the Microarchitecture Level, 311
4.6.1. The Microarchitecture of the Pentium 4 CPU, 312
4.6.2. The Microarchitecture of the UltraSPARC-III Cu CPU, 317
4.6.3. The Microarchitecture of the 8051 CPU, 323
4.7. Comparison of the Pentium, UltraSPARC, and 8051, 325
4.8. Summary, 326
5. The Instruction Set Architecture Level, 331
5.1. Overview of the ISA Level, 333
5.1.1. Properties of the ISA Level, 333
5.1.2. Memory Models, 335
5.1.3. Registers, 337
5.1.4. Instructions, 339
5.1.5. Overview of the Pentium 4 ISA Level, 339
5.1.6. Overview of the UltraSPARC III ISA Level, 341
5.1.7. Overview of the 8051 ISA Level, 345
5.2. Data Types, 348
5.2.1. Numeric Data Types, 348
5.2.2. Nonnumeric Data Types, 349
5.2.3. Data Types on the Pentium 4, 350
5.2.4. Data Types on the UltraSPARC III, 350
5.2.5. Data Types on the 8051, 351
5.3. Instruction Formats, 351
5.3.1. Design Criteria for Instruction Formats, 352
5.3.2. Expanding Opcodes, 354
5.3.3. The Pentium 4 Instruction Formats, 357
5.3.4. The UltraSPARC III Instruction Formats, 358
5.3.5. The 8051 Instruction Formats, 359
5.4. Addressing, 360
5.4.1. Addressing Modes, 360
5.4.2. Immediate Addressing, 361
5.4.3. Direct Addressing, 361
5.4.4. Register Addressing, 361
5.4.5. Register Indirect Addressing, 362
5.4.6. Indexed Addressing, 363
5.4.7. Based-Indexed Addressing, 365
5.4.8. Stack Addressing, 365
5.4.9. Addressing Modes for Branch Instructions, 369
5.4.10. Orthogonality of Opcodes and Addressing Modes, 369
5.4.11. The Pentium 4 Addressing Modes, 371
5.4.12. The UltraSPARC III Addressing Modes, 373
5.4.13. The 8051 Addressing Modes, 373
5.4.14. Discussion of Addressing Modes, 374
5.5. Instruction Types, 375
5.5.1. Data Movement Instructions, 375
5.5.2. Dyadic Operations, 376
5.5.3. Monadic Operations, 377
5.5.4. Comparisons and Conditional Branches, 379
5.5.5. Procedure Call Instructions, 381
5.5.6. Loop Control, 382
5.5.7. Input/Output, 383
5.5.8. The Pentium 4 Instructions, 386
5.5.9. The UltraSPARC III Instructions, 389
5.5.10. The 8051 Instructions, 392
5.5.11. Comparison of Instruction Sets, 392
5.6. Flow of Control, 395
5.6.1. Sequential Flow of Control and Branches, 395
5.6.2. Procedures, 396
5.6.3. Coroutines, 401
5.6.5. Traps, 404
5.6.5. Interrupts, 404
5.7. A Detailed Example: The Towers of Hanoi, 408
5.7.1. The Towers of Hanoi in Pentium 4 Assembly Language, 409
5.7.2. The Towers of Hanoi in UltraSPARC III Assembly Language, 409
5.8. The IA-64 Architecture and the Itanium 2, 411
5.8.1. The Problem with the Pentium 4, 413
5.8.2. The IA-64 Model: Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing, 414
5.8.3. Reducing Memory References, 415
5.8.4. Instruction Scheduling, 416
5.8.5. Reducing Conditional Branches: Predication, 418
5.8.6. Speculative Loads, 420
5.9. Summary, 421
6. The Operating System Machine Level, 427
6.1. Virtual Memory, 428
6.1.1. Paging, 429
6.1.2. Implementation of Paging, 431
6.1.3. Demand Paging and the Working Set Model, 433
6.1.4. Page Replacement Policy, 436
6.1.5. Page Size and Fragmentation, 438
6.1.6. Segmentation, 439
6.1.7. Implementation of Segmentation, 442
6.1.8. Virtual Memory on the Pentium 4, 445
6.1.9. Virtual Memory on the UltraSPARC III, 450
6.1.10. Virtual Memory and Caching, 452
6.2. Virtual I/O Instructions, 453
6.2.1. Files, 454
6.2.2. Implementation of Virtual I/O Instructions, 455
6.2.3. Directory Management Instructions, 459
6.3. Virtual Instructions for Parallel Processing, 460
6.3.1. Process Creation, 461
6.3.2. Race Conditions, 462
6.3.3. Process Synchronization Using Semaphores, 466
6.4. Example Operating Systems, 470
6.4.1. Introduction, 470
6.4.2. Examples of Virtual Memory, 479
6.4.3. Examples of Virtual I/O, 482
6.4.4. Examples of Process Management, 493
6.5. Summary, 500
7. The Assembly Language Level, 507
7.1. Introduction to Assembly Language, 508
7.1.1. What Is an Assembly Language?, 508
7.1.2. Why Use Assembly Language?, 509
7.1.3. Format of an Assembly Language Statement, 512
7.1.4. Pseudoinstructions, 515
7.2. Macros, 517
7.2.1. Macro Definition, Call, and Expansion, 518
7.2.2. Macros with Parameters, 520
7.2.3. Advanced Features, 521
7.2.4. Implementation of a Macro Facility in an Assembler, 521
7.3. The Assembly Process, 522
7.3.1. Two-Pass Assemblers, 522
7.3.2. Pass One, 523
7.3.3. Pass Two, 527
7.3.4. The Symbol Table, 529
7.4. Linking and Loading, 530
7.4.1. Tasks Performed by the Linker, 532
7.4.2. Structure of an Object Module, 535
7.4.3. Binding Time and Dynamic Relocation, 536
7.4.4. Dynamic Linking, 539
7.5. Summary, 543
8. Parallel Computer Architectures, 547
8.1. On-Chip Paralellism, 548
8.1.1. Instruction-Level Parallelism, 549
8.1.2. On-Chip Multithreading, 556
8.1.3. Single-Chip Multiprocessors, 562
8.2. Coprocessors, 567
8.2.1. Network Processors, 568
8.2.2. Media Processors, 576
8.2.3. Cryptoprocessors, 581
8.3. Shared-Memory Multiprocessors, 582
8.3.1. Multiprocessors vs. Multicomputers, 582
8.3.2. Memory Semantics, 590
8.3.3. UMA Symmetric Multiprocessor Architectures, 594
8.3.4. NUMA Multiprocessors, 602
8.3.5. COMA Multiprocessors, 611
8.4. Message-Passing Multicomputers, 612
8.4.1. Interconnection Networks, 614
8.4.2. MPPs—Massively Parallel Processors, 617
8.4.3. Cluster Computing, 627
8.4.4. Communication Software for Multicomputers, 632
8.4.5. Scheduling, 635
8.4.6. Application-Level Shared Memory, 636
8.4.7. Performance, 643
8.5. Grid Computing, 649
8.6. Summary, 651
9. Reading List and Bibliography, 655
9.1. Suggestions for Further Reading, 655
9.1.1. Introduction and General Works, 655
9.1.2. Computer Systems Organization, 657
9.1.3. The Digital Logic Level, 658
9.1.4. The Microarchitecture Level, 659
9.1.5. The Instruction Set Architecture Level, 659
9.1.6. The Operating System Machine Level, 660
9.1.7. The Assembly Language Level, 661
9.1.8. Parallel Computer Architectures, 661
9.1.9. Binary and Floating-Point Numbers, 663
9.1.10. Assembly Language Programming, 664
9.2. Alphabetical Bibliography, 664
A. Binary Numbers, 679
A.1. Finite-Precision Numbers, 679
A.2. Radix Number Systems, 681
A.3. Conversion from One Radix to Another, 683
A.4. Negative Binary Numbers, 685
A.5. Binary Arithmetic, 688
B. Floating-Point Numbers, 691
B.1. Principles of Floating Point, 692
B.2. IEEE Floating-Point Standard 754, 694
C. Assembly Language Programming, 701
C.1. Overview, 702
C.1.1. Assembly Language, 702
C.1.2. A Small Assembly Language Program, 703
C.2. The 8088 Processor, 704
C.2.1. The Processor Cycle, 705
C.2.2. The General Registers, 705
C.2.3. Pointer Registers, 708
C.3. Memory and Addressing, 709
C.3.1. Memory Organization and Segments, 709
C.3.2. Addressing, 711
C.4. The 8088 Instruction Set, 715
C.4.1. Move, Copy and Arithmetic, 715
C.4.2. Logical, Bit and Shift Operations, 718
C.4.3. Loop and Repetitive String Operations, 718
C.4.4. Jump and Call Instructions, 719
C.4.5. Subroutine Calls, 721
C.4.6. System Calls and System Subroutines, 723
C.4.7. Final Remarks on the Instruction Set, 725
C.5. The Assembler, 725
C.5.1. Introduction, 726
C.5.2. The ACK-Based Tutorial Assembler as88, 727
C.5.3. Some Differences with Other 8088 Assemblers, 730
C.6. The Tracer, 732
C.6.1. Tracer Commands, 734
C.7. Getting Started, 735
C.8. Examples, 736
C.8.1. Hello World Example, 736
C.8.2. General Registers Example, 740
C.8.3. Call Command and Pointer Registers, 742
C.8.4. Debugging an Array Print Program, 744
C.8.5. String Manipulation and String Instructions, 748
C.8.6. Dispatch Tables, 750
C.8.7. Buffered and Random File Access, 752
Index, 757
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