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Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, Eighth Edition

by Tom L. McKnight - University of California, Los Angeles; Darrel Hess - City College of San Francisco

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Copyright, iv
Preface, xxi
New to the Eighth Edition, xxv
Student Animations CD-ROM, xxvi
Lecture Presentation Tools and Ancillary Materials, xxviii
1. Introduction to Earth, xxx
Geography as a Field of Learning, 2
In This Book, 3
The Environmental Spheres, 3
The Solar System, 4
The Size and Shape of Earth, 7
The Geographic Grid, 9
Earth Movements, 15
The Annual March of the Seasons, 17
Telling Time, 22
Chapter Summary, 27
Key Terms, 28
Review Questions, 28
Some Useful References, 29
2. Portraying Earth, 30
The Nature of Maps, 31
The Role of Globes, 34
Map Projections, 35
Automated Cartography, 41
Isolines, 41
The Global Positioning System, 43
Remote Sensing, 44
Geographic Information Systems, 49
The Role of the Geographer, 51
Chapter Summary, 52
Key Terms, 52
Review Questions, 53
Some Useful References, 53
3. Introduction to the Atmosphere, 54
Composition of the Atmosphere, 56
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere, 57
Human-Induced Atmospheric Change, 61
Weather and Climate, 64
Chapter Summary, 67
Key Terms, 68
Review Questions, 68
Some Useful References, 69
4. Insolation and Temperature, 70
The Impact of Temperature on the Landscape, 71
Temperature: A Measure of Heat, 71
Solar Energy, 72
Basic Processes in Heating and Cooling the Atmosphere, 74
The Heating of the Atmosphere, 79
Spatial and Seasonal Variations in Heating, 80
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer, 90
Vertical Temperature Patterns, 93
Global Temperature Patterns, 95
Chapter Summary, 98
Key Terms, 98
Review Questions, 98
Some Useful References, 99
5. Atmospheric Pressure and Wind, 100
The Impact of Pressure and Wind on the Landscape, 101
The Nature of Atmospheric Pressure, 101
The Nature of Wind, 103
Vertical Variations in Pressure and Wind, 111
The General Circulation of the Atmosphere, 111
Modifications of the General Circulation, 123
Localized Wind Systems, 126
Chapter Summary, 128
Key Terms, 129
Review Questions, 129
Some Useful References, 129
6. Atmospheric Moisture, 130
The Impact of Atmospheric Moisture on the Landscape, 131
Water Vapor and the Hydrologic Cycle, 131
Evaporation, 132
Measures of Humidity, 134
Condensation, 136
The Buoyancy of Air, 144
Precipitation, 149
Global Distribution of Precipitation, 155
Chapter Summary, 159
Key Terms, 159
Review Questions, 160
Some Useful References, 161
7. Transient Atmospheric Flows and Disturbances, 162
The Impact of Storms on the Landscape, 163
Air Masses, 163
Fronts, 166
Atmospheric Disturbances, 169
Midlatitude Cyclones, 170
Midlatitude Anticyclones, 176
Major Tropical Disturbances: Hurricanes, 178
Localized Atmospheric Disturbances, 188
Chapter Summary, 196
Key Terms, 197
Review Questions, 197
Some Useful References, 197
8. Climatic Zones and Types, 198
Climatic Classification, 199
World Distribution of Major Climatic Types and Subtypes, 204
The Global Pattern Idealized, 237
Chapter Summary, 238
Key Terms, 239
Review Questions, 239
Some Useful References, 239
9. The Hydrosphere, 240
The Nature of Water: Commonplace but Unique, 241
The Hydrologic Cycle, 242
The Oceans, 244
Permanent Ice, 248
Surface Waters, 249
Underground Water, 255
Chapter Summary, 260
Key Terms, 260
Review Questions, 260
Some Useful References, 261
10. Cycles and Patterns in the Biosphere, 262
The Impact of Plants and Animals on the Landscape, 263
The Geographic Approach to the Study of Organisms, 263
Biogeochemical Cycles, 264
Food Chains, 269
The Search for a Meaningful Classification Scheme, 272
Ecosystems and Biomes, 273
Environmental Relationships, 274
Chapter Summary, 279
Key Terms, 279
Review Questions, 279
Some Useful References, 279
11. Terrestrial Flora and Fauna, 280
Natural Distributions, 281
Terrestrial Flora, 285
Terrestrial Fauna, 291
The Major Biomes, 301
Human Modification of Natural Distribution Patterns, 312
Distributional Summation: Some Patterns Examined, 316
Chapter Summary, 321
Key Terms, 322
Review Questions, 322
Some Useful References, 323
12. Soils, 324
Soil and Regolith, 325
Soil-Forming Factors, 326
Soil Components, 328
Soil Properties, 334
Soil Chemistry, 336
Soil Profiles, 338
Pedogenic Regimes, 339
Soil Classification, 343
Global Distribution of Major Soils, 345
Distribution of Soils in the United States, 355
Chapter Summary, 356
Key Terms, 356
Review Questions, 356
Some Useful References, 357
13. Introduction to Landform Study, 358
The Unknown Interior, 359
Composition of the Crust, 360
Some Critical Concepts, 368
The Study of Landforms, 372
Internal and External Geomorphic Processes, 374
The Question of Scale, 375
The Pursuit of Pattern, 375
Chapter Summary, 377
Key Terms, 378
Review Questions, 379
Some Useful References, 379
14. The Internal Processes, 380
The Impact of Internal Processes on the Landscape, 381
From Rigid Earth to Plate Tectonics, 381
Plate Tectonics, 383
Vulcanism, 393
Diastrophism, 409
Folding, 410
Faulting, 412
The Complexities of Crustal Configuration, 421
Chapter Summary, 422
Key Terms, 422
Review Questions, 423
Some Useful References, 423
15. Preliminaries to Erosion: Weathering and Mass Wasting, 424
The Impact of Weathering and Mass Wasting on the Landscape, 425
Weathering, 425
Weathering Agents, 427
Mass Wasting, 433
Chapter Summary, 442
Key Terms, 442
Review Questions, 442
Some Useful References, 443
16. The Fluvial Processes, 444
The Impact of Fluvial Processes on the Landscape, 445
Some Fundamental Concepts, 445
Stream Systems, 446
Stream Channels, 450
The Shaping and Reshaping of Valleys, 456
Stream Rejuvenation, 466
Theories of Landform Development, 467
Chapter Summary, 470
Key Terms, 471
Review Questions, 471
Some Useful References, 471
17. Solution Processes and Karst Topography, 472
The Impact of Solution Processes on the Landscape, 473
Solution and Precipitation, 473
Caverns and Related Features, 474
Karst Topography, 475
Hydrothermal Features, 478
Chapter Summary, 484
Key Terms, 484
Review Questions, 484
Some Useful References, 485
18. The Topography of Arid Lands, 486
A Specialized Environment, 487
Running Water in Waterless Regions, 488
Desert Surfaces—Ergs, Regs, and Hamadas, 495
The Work of the Wind, 496
Two Characteristic Desert Landform Assemblages, 500
Chapter Summary, 509
Key Terms, 509
Review Questions, 509
Some Useful References, 509
19. Glacial Modification of Terrain, 510
The Impact of Glaciers on the Landscape, 511
Glaciations Past and Present, 511
Types of Glaciers, 516
How Glaciers Form, 518
Continental Ice Sheets, 523
Mountain Glaciers, 529
The Periglacial Environment, 535
Are We Still in an Ice Age?, 536
Chapter Summary, 538
Key Terms, 539
Review Questions, 539
Some Useful References, 539
20. Coastal Processes and Terrain, 540
The Impact of Waves and Currents on the Landscape, 541
Coastal Processes, 541
Coastal Landforms, 551
Chapter Summary, 557
Key Terms, 558
Review Questions, 559
Some Useful References, 559
I. Families of Map Projections, A-1
Cylindrical Projections, A-1
Elliptical Projections, A-1
Azimuthal Projections, A-3
Conic Projections, A-3
II. U.S. Geological Survey Topographic Maps, A-4
Elevation Contour Lines, A-4
Topographic Map Symbols, A-4
III. The Weather Station Model, A-11
IV. Meteorological Tables, A-19
Determining Relative Humidity, A-19
The Beaufort Scale of Wind Speed, A-21
Wind Chill, A-21
The Heat Index, A-23
V. The Soil Taxonomy, A-28
The Hierarchy, A-28
Summary of Soil Suborders, A-28
VI. Biological Taxonomy, A-33
VII. The International System of Units (SI), A-35
VIII. Internet Resources, A-37
Maps, Astronomical Data, and Satellite Images, A-37
Weather and Climate, A-37
Weather Satellite Images, A-38
The Oceans and Hydrology, A-38
Biogeography and Soils, A-38
Geomorphology and Natural Hazards, A-38
Glossary, A-38
Inside Front Cover, FrontCover
Index, I-1-1

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