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Copyright, iv
Preface, xvii
Chapter 1. An Introduction to Geology, 1
The Science of Geology, 2
Geology, People, and the Environment, 3
Some Historical Notes about Geology, 4
Catastrophism, 4
The Birth of Modern Geology, 4
Geologic Time, 6
Relative Dating and the Geologic Time Scale, 6
The Magnitude of Geologic Time, 6
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry, 7
Hypothesis, 7
Box 1.1. Understanding Earth: Studying Earth from Space, 9
Theory, 10
Scientific Methods, 10
Plate Tectonics and Scientific Inquiry, 11
Box 1.2. Understanding Earth: Do Glaciers Move? An Application of the Scientific Method , 11
Earth’s Spheres, 12
Hydrosphere, 13
Atmosphere, 13
Biosphere, 13
Geosphere, 14
Earth as a System, 14
Earth System Science, 14
The Earth System, 15
Early Evolution of Earth, 16
Origin of Planet Earth, 16
Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure, 17
Earth’s Internal Structure, 19
Earth’s Crust, 19
Earth’s Mantle, 19
Earth’s Core, 20
How Do We Know What We Know?, 21
The Face of Earth, 21
Major Features of the Continents, 21
Major Features of the Ocean Floor, 24
Rocks and the Rock Cycle, 25
Basic Rock Types, 25
The Rock Cycle: One of Earth’s Subsystems, 28
Chapter 2. Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Revolution Unfolds, 35
Continental Drift: An Idea before Its Time, 37
Fit of the Continents, 37
Fossil Evidence, 38
Rock Type and Structural Similarities, 39
Paleoclimatic Evidence, 40
Box 2.1. Understanding Earth: The Breakup of Pangaea, 41
The Great Debate, 41
Rejection of the Continental Drift Hypothesis, 41
Continental Drift and the Scientific Method, 41
Box 2.2. Understanding Earth: Alfred Wegener (1880–1930): Polar Explorer and Visionary, 43
Continental Drift and Paleomagnetism, 44
Earth’s Magnetic Field and Fossil Magnetism, 44
Apparent Polar Wandering, 45
A Scientific Revolution Begins, 46
The Seafloor-Spreading Hypothesis, 46
Geomagnetic Reversals: Evidence for Seafloor Spreading, 47
The Last Piece of the Puzzle, 49
Box 2.3. Understanding Earth: Priority in the Sciences, 50
Plate Tectonics: The New Paradigm, 50
Earth’s Major Plates, 51
Plate Boundaries, 54
Divergent Boundaries, 54
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading, 54
Continental Rifting, 55
Convergent Boundaries, 55
Oceanic–Continental Convergence, 56
Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence, 57
Continental–Continental Convergence, 58
Transform Fault Boundaries, 58
Testing the Plate Tectonics Model, 60
Evidence from Ocean Drilling, 60
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes, 61
Box 2.4. Understanding Earth: Sampling the Ocean Floor , 62
Measuring Plate Motion, 62
Paleomagnetism and Plate Motions, 63
Measuring Plate Velocities from Space, 63
What Drives Plate Motions?, 64
Forces that Drive Plate Motion, 65
Models of Plate-Mantle Convection, 66
The Importance of the Plate Tectonics Theory, 67
Chapter 3. Matter and Minerals, 71
Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks, 72
Box 3.1. People and The Environment: Making Glass from Minerals, 74
Elements: Building Blocks of Minerals, 74
Why Atoms Bond, 76
Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred, 76
Covalent Bonds: Electrons Shared, 77
Other Bonds, 77
Isotopes and Radioactive Decay, 78
Crystals and Crystallization, 78
How Do Minerals Form?, 78
Crystal Structures, 79
Box 3.2. People and The Environment: Asbestos: What Are the Risks?, 80
Compositional Variations in Minerals, 82
Structural Variations in Minerals, 82
Physical Properties of Minerals, 83
Optical Properties, 84
Crystal Shape or Habit, 84
Mineral Strength, 85
Density and Specific Gravity, 86
Other Properties of Minerals, 86
How Are Minerals Named and Classified?, 87
Classifying Minerals, 88
Major Mineral Classes, 89
The Silicates, 89
The Silicon–Oxygen Tetrahedron, 89
Joining Silicate Structures, 90
Common Silicate Minerals, 91
The Light Silicates, 91
The Dark Silicates, 94
Important Nonsilicate Minerals, 95
Box 3.3. Understanding Earth: Gemstones, 96
Chapter 4. Igneous Rocks, 101
Magma: The Parent Material of Igneous Rock, 102
The Nature of Magma, 103
From Magma to Crystalline Rock, 103
Igneous Textures, 104
Factors Affecting Crystal Size, 104
Types of Igneous Textures, 104
Igneous Compositions, 107
Granitic (Felsic) versus Basaltic (Mafic) Compositions, 107
Other Compositional Groups, 107
Silica Content As an Indicator of Composition, 108
Box 4.1. Understanding Earth: Thin Sections and Rock Identification, 109
Naming Igneous Rocks, 110
Felsic (Granitic) Igneous Rocks, 110
Intermediate (Andesitic) Igneous Rocks, 113
Mafic (Basaltic) Igneous Rocks, 113
Pyroclastic Rocks, 114
Origin of Magma, 114
Generating Magma from Solid Rock, 115
How Magmas Evolve, 116
Bowen’s Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks, 116
Box 4.2. Understanding Earth: A Closer Look at Bowen’s Reaction Series, 118
Assimilation and Magma Mixing, 119
Partial Melting and Magma Composition, 120
Formation of a Basaltic Magma, 120
Formation of Andesitic and Granitic Magmas, 120
Chapter 5. Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity, 125
The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions, 126
Factors Affecting Viscosity, 126
Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?, 128
Box 5.1. Understanding Earth: Anatomy of an Eruption, 129
Materials Extruded during an Eruption, 131
Lava Flows, 131
Gases, 133
Pyroclastic Materials, 134
Volcanic Structures and Eruptive Styles, 134
Anatomy of a Volcano, 135
Shield Volcanoes, 135
Cinder Cones, 138
Composite Cones, 139
Living in the Shadow of a Composite Cone, 140
Eruption of Vesuvius A.D. 79, 140
Box 5.2. People and The Environment: The Lost Continent of Atlantis , 141
Nuée Ardente: A Deadly Pyroclastic Flow, 142
Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones, 143
Other Volcanic Landforms, 144
Calderas, 144
Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus, 147
Lava Domes, 147
Volcanic Pipes and Necks, 148
Intrusive Igneous Activity, 149
Nature of Plutons, 149
Dikes, 150
Sills and Laccoliths, 150
Batholiths, 151
Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity, 153
Igneous Activity at Convergent Plate Boundaries, 154
Igneous Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries, 155
Intraplate Igneous Activity, 155
Living with Volcanoes, 159
Volcanic Hazards, 159
Monitoring Volcanic Activity, 160
Chapter 6. Weathering and Soil, 165
Earth’s External Processes, 166
Weathering, 166
Mechanical Weathering, 167
Frost Wedging, 167
Salt Crystal Growth, 168
Unloading, 168
Box 6.1. Understanding Earth: The Old Man of the Mountain, 169
Thermal Expansion, 169
Biological Activity, 171
Chemical Weathering, 171
Dissolution, 171
Oxidation, 172
Hydrolysis, 173
Box 6.2. Earth as a System: Acid Precipitation—A Human Impact on the Earth System, 174
Alterations Caused by Chemical Weathering, 175
Rates of Weathering, 177
Rock Characteristics, 177
Climate, 177
Differential Weathering, 177
Soil, 177
An Interface in the Earth System, 178
What Is Soil?, 178
Controls of Soil Formation, 179
Parent Material, 179
Time, 180
Climate, 180
Plants and Animals, 180
Topography, 180
The Soil Profile, 181
Classifying Soils, 183
Soil Erosion, 183
How Soil Is Eroded, 184
Rates of Erosion, 184
Box 6.3. People and The Environment: Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest—The Impact on Its Soils, 186
Box 6.4. People and The Environment: Dust Bowl—Soil Erosion in the Great Plains , 188
Sedimentation and Chemical Pollution, 188
Chapter 7. Sedimentary Rocks, 193
Origins of Sedimentary Rock, 194
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks, 195
Shale, 196
Sandstone, 197
Conglomerate and Breccia, 199
Box 7.1. Earth as a System: The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks, 200
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks, 201
Limestone, 201
Dolostone, 203
Chert, 203
Evaporites, 203
Coal—An Organic Sedimentary Rock, 205
Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification, 206
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks, 207
Sedimentary Environments, 208
Types of Sedimentary Environments, 209
Box 7.2. Understanding Earth: The Nature and Distribution of Seafloor Sediments, 212
Sedimentary Facies, 212
Sedimentary Structures, 213
Chapter 8. Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks, 221
What Is Metamorphism?, 223
What Drives Metamorphism?, 223
Heat as a Metamorphic Agent, 223
Confining Pressure and Differential Stress, 224
Chemically Active Fluids, 225
The Importance of Parent Rock, 226
Metamorphic Textures, 226
Foliation, 227
Foliated Textures, 227
Other Metamorphic Textures, 229
Common Metamorphic Rocks, 230
Foliated Rocks, 230
Nonfoliated Rocks, 232
Metamorphic Environments, 233
Contact or Thermal Metamorphism, 233
Hydrothermal Metamorphism, 234
Regional Metamorphism, 235
Other Metamorphic Environments, 236
Box 8.1. Understanding Earth: Impact Metamorphism and Tektites, 237
Metamorphic Zones, 238
Textural Variations, 238
Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade, 238
Interpreting Metamorphic Environments, 240
Tectonic Settings and Metamorphic Facies, 240
Ancient Metamorphic Environments, 241
Box 8.2. Understanding Earth: Mineral Stability , 242
Chapter 9. Geologic Time, 247
Geology Needs a Time Scale, 248
Relative Dating—Key Principles, 249
Law of Superposition, 249
Principle of Original Horizontality, 250
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships, 250
Inclusions, 250
Unconformities, 251
Using Relative Dating Principles, 252
Correlation of Rock Layers, 252
Fossils: Evidence of Past Life, 253
Types of Fossils, 253
Conditions Favoring Preservation, 256
Fossils and Correlation, 256
Box 9.1. Understanding Earth: Applying Relative Dating Principles to the Lunar Surface, 258
Dating with Radioactivity, 259
Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure, 260
Radioactivity, 260
Half-Life, 261
Radiometric Dating, 261
Box 9.2. People and The Environment: Radon, 263
Dating with Carbon-14, 263
Importance of Radiometric Dating, 264
The Geologic Time Scale, 264
Structure of the Time Scale, 265
Precambrian Time, 266
Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale, 267
Chapter 10. Crustal Deformation, 273
Structural Geology: A Study of Earth’s Architecture, 274
Deformation, 275
Force and Stress, 275
Types of Stress, 275
Strain, 276
How Rocks Deform, 276
Mapping Geologic Structures, 278
Strike and Dip, 278
Box 10.1. Understanding Earth: Naming Local Rock Units, 279
Folds, 279
Types of Folds, 280
Domes and Basins, 281
Faults, 282
Dip-Slip Faults, 283
Strike-Slip Faults, 287
Joints, 288
Box 10.2. People and The Environment: The San Andreas Fault System , 290
Chapter 11. Earthquakes, 295
What Is an Earthquake?, 296
Earthquakes and Faults, 297
Discovering the Cause of Earthquakes, 298
Foreshocks and Aftershocks, 299
Earthquake Rupture and Propagation, 299
San Andreas Fault: An Active Earthquake Zone, 300
Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves, 300
Locating the Source of an Earthquake, 302
Earthquake Belts, 304
Earthquake Depths, 305
Measuring the Size of Earthquakes, 305
Box 11.1. People and The Environment: Earthquakes East of the Rockies, 306
Intensity Scales, 306
Magnitude Scales, 307
Earthquake Destruction, 309
Destruction from Seismic Vibrations, 310
Box 11.2. Understanding Earth: Wave Amplification and Seismic Risks, 311
What Is a Tsunami?, 312
Landslides and Ground Subsidence, 314
Fire, 315
Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?, 315
Short-Range Predictions, 315
Long-Range Forecasts, 317
Earthquakes: Evidence for Plate Tectonics, 319
Box 11.3. Understanding Earth: A Major Earthquake in Turkey, 320
Chapter 12. Earth’s Interior, 325
Gravity and Layered Planets, 326
Probing Earth’s Interior: “Seeing” Seismic Waves, 326
Box 12.1. Understanding Earth: Re-creating the Deep Earth, 329
Earth’s Layers, 329
Earth’s Crust, 330
Earth’s Mantle, 331
Earth’s Core, 333
Earth’s Temperature, 334
How Did Earth Get So Hot?, 335
Heat Flow, 335
Earth’s Temperature Profile, 337
Earth’s Three-Dimensional Structure, 339
Earth’s Gravity, 339
Seismic Tomography, 340
Earth’s Magnetic Field, 341
Box 12.2. Earth as a System: Global Dynamic Connections, 344
Chapter 13. Divergent Boundaries: Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor, 349
An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor, 350
Mapping the Seafloor, 350
Viewing the Ocean Floor from Space, 352
Provinces of the Ocean Floor, 352
Continental Margins, 353
Passive Continental Margins, 353
Box 13.1. Understanding Earth: Susan DeBari—A Career in Geology, 354
Active Continental Margins, 355
Features of Deep-Ocean Basins, 356
Deep-Ocean Trenches, 356
Abyssal Plains, 357
Seamounts, Guyots, and Oceanic Plateaus, 357
Box 13.2. Understanding Earth: Explaining Coral Atolls—Darwin’s Hypothesis, 358
Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge, 358
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading, 361
Seafloor Spreading, 361
Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated?, 362
Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography, 362
The Nature of Oceanic Crust, 363
How Does Oceanic Crust Form?, 364
Interactions between Seawater and Oceanic Crust, 364
Box 13.3. Earth as a System: Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents , 365
Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin, 366
Evolution of an Ocean Basin, 366
Mechanisms for Continental Rifting, 368
Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere, 369
Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts, 369
Subducting Plates: The Demise of an Ocean Basin, 370
Chapter 14. Convergent Boundaries: Origin of Mountains, 377
Mountain Building, 379
Convergence and Subducting Plates, 380
Major Features of Subduction Zones, 380
Dynamics at Subduction Zones, 381
Subduction and Mountain Building, 382
Island Arcs, 382
Mountain Building along Andean-type Margins, 382
Box 14.1. Understanding Earth: Earthquakes in the Pacific Northwest, 383
Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges, 385
Continental Collisions, 386
The Himalayas, 387
The Appalachians, 388
Terranes and Mountain Building, 390
The Nature of Terranes, 390
Accretion and Orogenesis, 391
Fault-Block Mountains, 391
Box 14.2. Understanding Earth: The Southern Rockies, 392
Basin and Range Province, 393
Vertical Movements of the Crust, 394
Isostasy, 394
Mantle Convection: A Cause of Vertical Crustal Movement, 395
Box 14.3. Understanding Earth: Do Mountains Have Roots?, 396
Chapter 15. Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity, 401
Landslides as Natural Disasters, 402
Mass Wasting and Landform Development, 402
The Role of Mass Wasting, 403
Slopes Change through Time, 404
Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting, 404
The Role of Water, 404
Oversteepened Slopes, 404
Removal of Vegetation, 405
Earthquakes as Triggers, 405
Box 15.1. People and The Environment: Landslide Hazards at La Conchita, California, 406
Landslides without Triggers?, 407
Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes, 408
Type of Material, 408
Type of Motion, 408
Box 15.2. People and The Environment: The Vaiont Dam Disaster, 409
Rate of Movement, 410
Slump, 410
Rockslide, 411
Debris Flow, 412
Debris Flows in Semiarid Regions, 412
Lahars, 413
Earthflow, 414
Slow Movements, 414
Creep, 415
Solifluction, 415
The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape, 415
Box 15.3. People and The Environment: Debris Flows on Alluvial Fans: A Case Study from Venezuela, 416
Submarine Landslides, 417
Chapter 16. Running Water, 423
Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle, 424
Running Water, 426
Drainage Basins, 426
River Systems, 427
Streamflow, 428
Gradient and Channel Characteristics, 428
Discharge, 429
Changes from Upstream to Downstream, 430
The Work of Running Water, 431
Stream Erosion, 431
Transport of Sediment by Streams, 431
Deposition of Sediment by Streams, 434
Stream Channels, 434
Bedrock Channels, 434
Alluvial Channels, 435
Base Level and Graded Streams, 436
Shaping Stream Valleys, 437
Valley Deepening, 437
Valley Widening, 438
Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces, 439
Depositional Landforms, 440
Deltas, 440
The Mississippi Delta, 441
Natural Levees, 442
Alluvial Fans, 443
Drainage Patterns, 444
Box 16.1. People and The Environment: Coastal Wetlands Are Vanishing on the Mississippi Delta, 445
Headward Erosion and Stream Piracy, 446
Formation of a Water Gap, 447
Floods and Flood Control, 447
Causes and Types of Floods, 448
Box 16.2. People and The Environment: Flash Floods , 450
Flood Control, 451
Chapter 17. Groundwater, 457
Importance of Underground Water, 458
Distribution of Groundwater, 459
The Water Table, 459
Variations in the Water Table, 459
Interaction between Groundwater and Streams, 460
Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater, 461
Porosity, 461
Box 17.1. Earth as a System: Drought Impacts the Hydrologic System, 462
Permeability, Aquitards, and Aquifers, 463
Movement of Groundwater, 463
Darcy’s Law, 464
Different Scales of Movement, 464
Springs, 465
Hot Springs and Geysers, 466
Wells, 468
Artesian Wells, 469
Problems Associated with Groundwater Withdrawal, 470
Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource, 470
Subsidence, 471
Box 17.2. People and The Environment: Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, 472
Saltwater Contamination, 473
Groundwater Contamination, 473
The Geologic Work of Groundwater, 475
Caverns, 475
Karst Topography, 476
Box 17.3. People and The Environment: The Case of the Disappearing Lake, 479
Chapter 18. Glaciers and Glaciation, 483
Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles, 485
Valley (Alpine) Glaciers, 485
Ice Sheets, 485
Other Types of Glaciers, 486
What if the Ice Melted?, 487
Formation and Movement of Glacial Ice, 487
Glacial Ice Formation, 487
Box 18.1. Understanding Earth: The Collapse of Antarctic Ice Shelves, 488
Movement of a Glacier, 489
Rates of Glacial Movement, 490
Budget of a Glacier, 490
Glacial Erosion, 492
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion, 493
Glaciated Valleys, 493
Arêtes and Horns, 496
Roches Moutonnées, 496
Glacial Deposits, 497
Landforms Made of Till, 497
Lateral and Medial Moraines, 498
End and Ground Moraines, 499
Drumlins, 500
Landforms Made of Stratified Drift, 500
Outwash Plains and Valley Trains, 500
Ice-Contact Deposits, 501
Other Effects of Ice-Age Glaciers, 502
Crustal Subsidence and Rebound, 502
Sea-Level Changes, 502
Rivers before and after the Ice Age, 503
Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes, 504
Pluvial Lakes, 504
The Glacial Theory and the Ice Age, 505
Box 18.2. Understanding Earth: Glacial Lake Missoula, Megafloods, and the Channeled Scablands, 506
Causes of Glaciation, 506
Plate Tectonics, 507
Variations in Earth’s Orbit, 508
Other Factors, 509
Chapter 19. Deserts and Winds, 515
Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands, 517
Low-Latitude Deserts, 517
Box 19.1. Understanding Earth: What Is Meant by “Dry”?, 518
Middle-Latitude Deserts, 518
Geologic Processes in Arid Climates, 520
Weathering, 520
The Role of Water, 520
Box 19.2. People and The Environment: The Disappearing Aral Sea, 521
Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Desert Landscape, 522
Box 19.3. Understanding Earth: Australia’s Mount Uluru, 524
Transportation of Sediment by Wind, 525
Bed Load, 525
Suspended Load, 525
Wind Erosion, 526
Deflation and Blowouts, 526
Desert Pavement, 526
Box 19.4. People and The Environment: Deserts Are Expanding , 527
Ventifacts and Yardangs, 528
Wind Deposits, 528
Sand Deposits, 529
Types of Sand Dunes, 530
Loess (Silt) Deposits, 533
Chapter 20. Shorelines, 537
The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface, 538
The Coastal Zone, 539
Waves, 540
Wave Characteristics, 540
Circular Orbital Motion, 541
Waves in the Surf Zone, 541
Wave Erosion, 542
Sand Movement on the Beach, 543
Movement Perpendicular to the Shoreline, 543
Wave Refraction, 544
Beach Drift and Longshore Currents, 544
Shoreline Features, 545
Erosional Features, 545
Depositional Features, 546
The Evolving Shore, 548
Stabilizing the Shore, 549
Hard Stabilization, 549
Alternatives to Hard Stabilization, 551
Erosion Problems along U.S. Coasts, 552
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, 552
Pacific Coast, 552
Box 20.1. People and The Environment: The Move of the Century—Relocating the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, 553
Hurricanes—The Ultimate Coastal Hazard, 554
Storm Surge, 555
Wind Damage, 555
Box 20.2. Understanding Earth: Examining Hurricane Katrina from Space , 556
Island Flooding, 558
Coastal Classification, 558
Emergent Coasts, 559
Submergent Coasts, 559
Tides, 559
Causes of Tides, 559
Monthly Tidal Cycle, 561
Tidal Patterns, 561
Tidal Currents, 561
Tides and Earth’s Rotation, 562
Chapter 21. Global Climate Change, 567
The Climate System, 568
How Is Climate Change Detected?, 569
Seafloor Sediment—A Storehouse of Climate Data, 570
Oxygen Isotope Analysis, 571
Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice, 571
Tree Rings—Archives of Environmental History, 571
Other Types of Proxy Data, 572
Some Atmospheric Basics, 573
Composition of the Atmosphere, 573
Energy from the Sun, 574
The Fate of Incoming Solar Energy, 574
Heating the Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect, 575
Natural Causes of Climate Change, 575
Volcanic Activity and Climate Change, 576
Solar Variability and Climate, 578
Box 21.1. Earth as a System: A Possible Link Between Volcanism and Climate Change in the Geologic Past, 579
Human Impact on Global Climate, 580
Carbon Dioxide, Trace Gases, and Climate Change, 580
Box 21.2. Understanding Earth: Computer Models of Climate: Important Yet Imperfect Tools, 581
CO₂ Levels Are Rising, 581
The Atmosphere’s Response, 582
The Role of Trace Gases, 582
Climate-Feedback Mechanisms, 584
How Aerosols Influence Climate, 585
Some Possible Consequences of Global Warming, 585
Water Resources and Agriculture, 586
Box 21.3. People and The Environment: Possible Consequences of Climate Change on the United States , 587
Sea-Level Rise, 587
The Changing Arctic, 588
The Potential for “Surprises”, 590
Chapter 22. Earth’s Evolution through Geologic Time, 595
Is Earth Unique?, 597
The Right Planet, 597
The Right Location, 597
The Right Time, 597
Birth of a Planet, 598
From Planetesimals to Protoplanets, 598
Earth’s Early Evolution, 601
Origin of the Atmosphere and Oceans, 601
Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere, 601
Oxygen in the Atmosphere, 602
Evolution of the Oceans, 603
Precambrian History: The Formation of Earth’s Continents, 603
Earth’s First Continents, 603
The Making of North America, 605
Supercontinents of the Precambrian, 606
Phanerozoic History: The Formation of Earth’s Modern Continents, 609
Paleozoic History, 609
Mesozoic History, 610
Cenozoic History, 611
Earth’s First Life, 612
Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes, 613
Box 22.1. Understanding Earth: The Burgess Shale, 615
Early Paleozoic Life-Forms, 616
Vertebrates Move to Land, 616
Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs, 617
Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals, 618
Box 22.2. Earth as a System: The Great Permian Extinction, 619
Box 22.3. Understanding Earth: Demise of the Dinosaurs, 620
From Reptiles to Mammals, 621
Large Mammals and Extinction, 622
Chapter 23. Energy and Mineral Resources, 627
Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources, 628
Energy Resources, 629
Coal, 630
Oil and Natural Gas, 631
Petroleum Formation, 631
Box 23.1. Understanding Earth: Gas Hydrates—A Fuel from Ocean-Floor Sediments, 632
Oil Traps, 632
Oil Sands and Oil Shale—Petroleum for the Future?, 634
Oil Sands, 634
Oil Shale, 635
Alternate Energy Sources, 635
Nuclear Energy, 635
Solar Energy, 636
Wind Energy, 638
Hydroelectric Power, 639
Geothermal Energy, 639
Tidal Power, 640
Mineral Resources, 642
Box 23.2. People and The Environment: Maintaining the Flow of Geothermal Energy at The Geysers, 642
Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes, 643
Magmatic Segregation, 643
Box 23.3. People and The Environment: Utah’s Bingham Canyon Mine , 644
Diamonds, 645
Hydrothermal Solutions, 645
Mineral Resources and Metamorphic Processes, 646
Weathering and Ore Deposits, 647
Bauxite, 647
Other Deposits, 647
Placer Deposits, 648
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources, 649
Building Materials, 649
Industrial Minerals, 650
Chapter 24. Planetary Geology, 655
The Planets: An Overview, 656
How Did the Planets Form?, 657
Terrestrial and Jovian Planets, 657
The Composition of the Planets, 658
The Atmosphere of the Planets, 658
Earth’s Moon, 659
The Lunar Surface, 659
Lunar History, 661
The Planets: A Brief Tour, 662
Mercury: The Innermost Planet, 662
Venus: The Veiled Planet, 664
Mars: The Red Planet, 664
Box 24.1. Understanding Earth: Pathfinder—The First Geologist on Mars, 666
Jupiter: Lord of the Heavens, 667
Saturn: The Elegant Planet, 671
Uranus and Neptune: The Twins, 672
Minor Members of the Solar System: Asteroids, Comets, Meteoroids, and Dwarf Planets, 673
Asteroids: Planetesimals, 674
Comets: Dirty Snowballs, 674
Box 24.2. Earth as a System: Is Earth on a Collision Course?, 675
Meteoroids: Visitors to Earth, 677
Dwarf Planets, 679
Appendix A. Metric and English Systems Compared, 682
Appendix B. Landforms of the Conterminous United States, 683
Glossary, 685
Index, 703
Inside Back Cover, insidebackcover-1

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