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Concepts of Genetics

by William S. Klug - The College of New Jersey; Michael R. Cummings - Illinois Institute of Technology; Charlotte A. Spencer - University of Alberta

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Copyright, iv
About the Authors, vi
Preface, ii
One. Genes, Chromosomes, and Heredity, xxviii
One. Introduction to Genetics, 1
1.1. From Mendel to DNA in Less Than a Century, 2
1.2. Discovery of the Double Helix Launched the Recombinant DNA Era, 5
1.3. Genomics Grew Out of Recombinant DNA Technology, 7
1.4. The Impact of Biotechnology Is Growing, 9
1.5. Genetic Studies Rely On the Use of Model Organisms, 11
1.6. We Live in the “Age of Genetics”, 14
Chapter Summary, 15
Problems and Discussion Questions, 15
Selected Readings, 16
Two. Mitosis and Meiosis, 17
2.1. Cell Structure Is Closely Tied to Genetic Function, 18
2.2. In Diploid Organisms, Chromosomes Exist in Homologous Pairs, 20
2.3. Mitosis Partitions Chromosomes into Dividing Cells, 23
2.4. Meiosis Reduces the Chromosome Number from Diploid to Haploid in Germ Cells and Spores, 27
2.5. The Development of Gametes Varies during Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis, 31
2.6. Meiosis Is Critical to the Successful Sexual Reproduction of All Diploid Organisms, 32
2.7. Electron Microscopy Has Revealed the Cytological Nature of Mitotic and Meiotic Chromosomes, 33
Chapter Summary, 35
Insights and Solutions, 36
Problems and Discussion Questions, 37
Selected Readings, 38
Three. Mendelian Genetics, 39
3.1. Mendel Used a Model Experimental Approach to Study Patterns of Inheritance, 40
3.2. The Monohybrid Cross Reveals How One Trait Is Transmitted from Generation to Generation, 40
3.3. Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross Revealed His Fourth Postulate: Independent Assortment, 44
3.4. The Trihybrid Cross Demonstrates That Mendel’s Principles Apply to Inheritance of Multiple Traits, 47
3.5. Mendel’s Work Was Rediscovered in the Early Twentieth Century, 49
3.6. The Correlation of Mendel’s Postulates with the Behavior of Chromosomes Formed the Foundation of Modern Transmission Genetics, 49
3.7. Independent Assortment Leads to Extensive Genetic Variation, 51
3.8. Laws of Probability Help to Explain Genetic Events, 51
3.9. Chi-Square Analysis Evaluates the Influence of Chance on Genetic Data, 54
3.10. Pedigrees Reveal Patterns of Inheritance in Humans, 56
Chapter Summary, 59
Insights and Solutions, 60
Problems and Discussion Questions, 62
Selected Readings, 65
Four. Extensions of Mendelian Genetics, 66
4.1. Alleles Alter Phenotypes in Different Ways, 67
4.2. Geneticists Use a Variety of Symbols for Alleles, 68
4.3. In Incomplete Dominance, Neither Allele Is Dominant, 68
4.4. In Codominance, the Influence of Both Alleles in a Heterozygote Is Clearly Evident, 69
4.5. Multiple Alleles of a Gene May Exist in a Population, 70
4.6. Lethal Alleles Represent Essential Genes, 72
4.7. Combinations of Two Gene Pairs Involving Two Modes of Inheritance Modify the 9:3:3:1 Ratio, 74
4.8. Phenotypes Are Often Affected by More Than One Gene, 75
4.9. Expression of a Single Gene May Have Multiple Effects, 80
4.10. X-Linkage Describes Genes on the X Chromosome, 81
4.11. In Sex-Limited and Sex-Influenced Inheritance, an Individual’s Sex Influences the Phenotype, 84
4.12. Phenotypic Expression Is Not Always a Direct Reflection of the Genotype, 85
Chapter Summary, 91
Insights and Solutions, 91
Problems and Discussion Questions, 93
Five. Chromosome Mapping in Eukaryotes, 100
5.1. Genes Linked on the Same Chromosome Segregate Together, 101
5.2. Crossing Over Serves as the Basis of Determining the Distance between Genes during Chromosome Mapping, 104
5.3. Determining the Gene Sequence during Mapping Relies on the Analysis of Multiple Crossovers, 107
5.4. Interference Affects the Recovery of Multiple Exchanges, 114
5.5. As the Distance between Two Genes Increases, Mapping Experiments Become More Inaccurate, 115
5.6. Drosophila Genes Have Been Extensively Mapped, 116
5.7. Crossing Over Involves a Physical Exchange between Chromatids, 117
5.8. Recombination Occurs between Mitotic Chromosomes, 118
5.9. Exchanges Also Occur between Sister Chromatids, 120
5.10. Linkage Analysis and Mapping Can Be Performed in Haploid Organisms, 120
5.11. Lod Score Analysis and Somatic Cell Hybridization Were Historically Important in Creating Human Chromosome Maps, 126
5.12. Gene Mapping Is Now Possible Using Molecular Analysis of DNA, 128
5.13. Did Mendel Encounter Linkage?, 128
Chapter Summary, 129
Insights and Solutions, 130
Problems and Discussion Questions, 132
Selected Readings, 136
Six. Genetic Analysis and Mapping in Bacteria and Bacteriophages, 137
6.1. Bacteria Mutate Spontaneously and Grow at an Exponential Rate, 138
6.2. Conjugation Is One Means of Genetic Recombination in Bacteria, 139
6.3. Mutational Analysis Led to the Discovery of the Rec Proteins Essential to Bacterial Recombination, 146
6.4. F Factors Are Plasmids, 146
6.5. Transformation Is Another Process Leading to Genetic Recombination in Bacteria, 147
6.6. Bacteriophages Are Bacterial Viruses, 148
6.7. Transduction Is Virus-Mediated Bacterial DNA Transfer, 151
6.8. Bacteriophages Undergo Intergenic Recombination, 153
6.9. Intragenic Recombination Occurs in Phage T4, 154
Chapter Summary, 160
Insights and Solutions, 160
Problems and Discussion Questions, 161
Extra-Spicy Problems, 163
Selected Readings, 164
Seven. Sex Determination and Sex Chromosomes, 165
7.1. Sexual Differentiation and Life Cycles, 166
7.2. X and Y Chromosomes Were First Linked to Sex Determination Early in the 20th Century, 169
7.3. The Y Chromosome Determines Maleness in Humans, 170
7.4. The Ratio of Males to Females in Humans Is Not 1.0, 175
7.5. Dosage Compensation Prevents Excessive Expression of X-Linked Genes in Humans and Other Mammals, 175
7.6. The Ratio of X Chromosomes to Sets of Autosomes Determines Sex in Drosophila, 178
7.7. Temperature Variation Controls Sex Determination in Reptiles, 181
Chapter Summary, 182
Insights and Solutions, 184
Problems and Discussion Questions, 184
Selected Readings, 186
Eight. Chromosome Mutations: Variation in Chromosome Number and Arrangement, 187
8.1. Specific Terminology Describes Variations in Chromosome Number, 188
8.2. Variation in the Number of Chromosomes Results from Nondisjunction, 188
8.3. Monosomy, the Loss of a Single Chromosome, May Have Severe Phenotypic Effects, 189
8.4. Trisomy Involves the Addition of a Chromosome to a Diploid Genome, 190
8.5. Polyploidy, in Which More Than Two Haploid Sets of Chromosomes Are Present, Is Prevalent in Plants, 194
8.6. Variation Occurs in the Structure and Arrangement of Chromosomes, 198
8.7. A Deletion Is a Missing Region of a Chromosome, 199
8.8. A Duplication Is a Repeated Segment of the Genetic Material, 200
8.9. Inversions Rearrange the Linear Gene Sequence, 203
8.10. Translocations Alter the Location of Chromosomal Segments in the Genome, 206
8.11. Fragile Sites in Humans Are Susceptible to Chromosome Breakage, 208
Chapter Summary, 210
Insights and Solutions, 210
Problems and Discussion Questions, 211
Selected Readings, 213
Nine. Extranuclear Inheritance, 214
9.1. Organelle Heredity Involves DNA in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria, 215
9.2. Knowledge of Mitochondrial and Chloroplast DNA Helps Explain Organelle Heredity, 218
9.3. Mutations in Mitochondrial DNA Cause Human Disorders, 221
9.4. Infectious Heredity Is Based on a Symbiotic Relationship between Host Organism and Invader, 222
9.5. In Maternal Effect, the Maternal Genotype Has a Strong Influence during Early Development, 224
Chapter Summary, 227
Insights and Solutions, 228
Problems and Discussion Questions, 228
Selected Readings, 230
Two. DNA: Structure, Replication, and Variation, 230
Ten. DNA Structure and Analysis, 231
10.1. The Genetic Material Must Exhibit Four Characteristics, 232
10.2. Until 1944, Observations Favored Protein as the Genetic Material, 233
10.3. Evidence Favoring DNA as the Genetic Material Was First Obtained during the Study of Bacteria and Bacteriophages, 233
10.4. Indirect and Direct Evidence Supports the Concept that DNA Is the Genetic Material in Eukaryotes, 239
10.5. RNA Serves as the Genetic Material in Some Viruses, 240
10.6. Knowledge of Nucleic Acid Chemistry Is Essential to the Understanding of DNA Structure, 241
10.7. The Structure of DNA Holds the Key to Understanding Its Function, 243
10.8. Alternative Forms of DNA Exist, 248
10.9. The Structure of RNA Is Chemically Similar to DNA, but Single Stranded, 249
10.10. Many Analytical Techniques Have Been Useful during the Investigation of DNA and RNA, 251
Chapter Summary, 259
Insights and Solutions, 259
Problems and Discussion Questions, 260
Selected Readings, 262
Eleven. DNA Replication and Recombination, 263
11.1. DNA Is Reproduced by Semiconservative Replication, 264
11.2. DNA Synthesis in Bacteria Involves Five Polymerases, as well as Other Enzymes, 268
11.3. Many Complex Issues Must Be Resolved during DNA Replication, 271
11.4. The DNA Helix Must Be Unwound, 271
11.5. Initiation of DNA Synthesis Requires an RNA Primer, 272
11.6. Antiparallel Strands Require Continuous and Discontinuous DNA Synthesis, 272
11.7. Concurrent Synthesis Occurs on the Leading and Lagging Strands, 273
11.8. Proofreading and Error Correction Are an Integral Part of DNA Replication, 273
11.9. A Coherent Model Summarizes DNA Replication, 273
11.10. Replication Is Controlled by a Variety of Genes, 274
11.11. Eukaryotic DNA Synthesis Is Similar to Synthesis in Prokaryotes, but More Complex, 275
11.12. The Ends of Linear Chromosomes Are Problematic during Replication, 276
11.13. DNA Recombination, Like DNA Replication, Is Directed by Specific Enzymes, 278
11.14. Gene Conversion Is a Consequence of DNA Recombination, 279
Chapter Summary, 282
Insights and Solutions, 282
Problems and Discussion Questions, 283
Selected Readings, 285
Twelve. DNA Organization in Chromosomes, 286
12.1. Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes Are Relatively Simple DNA Molecules, 287
12.2. Supercoiling Is Common in the DNA of Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes, 289
12.3. Specialized Chromosomes Reveal Variations in Structure, 290
12.4. DNA Is Organized into Chromatin in Eukaryotes, 292
12.5. Chromosome Banding Differentiates Regions along the Mitotic Chromosome, 296
12.6. Eukaryotic Chromosomes Demonstrate Complex Organization Characterized by Repetitive DNA, 297
12.7. The Vast Majority of a Eukaryotic Genome Does Not Encode Functional Genes, 301
Chapter Summary, 301
Insights and Solutions, 302
Problems and Discussion Questions, 302
Selected Readings, 305
Three. Expression and Regulation of Genetic Information, 305
Thirteen. The Genetic Code and Transcription, 306
13.1. The Genetic Code Exhibits a Number of Characteristics, 307
13.2. Early Studies Established the Basic Operational Patterns of the Code, 307
13.3. Studies by Nirenberg, Matthaei, and Others Led to Deciphering of the Code, 309
13.4. The Coding Dictionary Reveals Several Interesting Patterns among the 64 Codons, 313
13.5. The Genetic Code Has Been Confirmed in Studies of Phage MS2, 315
13.6. The Genetic Code Is Nearly Universal, 315
13.7. Different Initiation Points Create Overlapping Genes, 316
13.8. Transcription Synthesizes RNA on a DNA Template, 317
13.9. Studies with Bacteria and Phages Provided Evidence for the Existence of mRNA, 317
13.10. RNA Polymerase Directs RNA Synthesis, 318
13.11. Transcription in Eukaryotes Differs from Prokaryotic Transcription in Several Ways, 320
13.12. The Coding Regions of Eukaryotic Genes Are Interrupted by Intervening Sequences, 323
13.13. Transcription Has Been Visualized by Electron Microscopy, 326
Chapter Summary, 329
Insights and Solutions, 329
Problems and Discussion Questions, 330
Selected Readings, 333
Fourteen. Translation and Proteins, 334
14.1. Translation of mRNA Depends on Ribosomes and Transfer RNAs, 335
14.2. Translation of mRNA Can Be Divided into Three Steps, 338
14.3. Crystallographic Analysis Has Revealed Many Details about the Functional Prokaryotic Ribosome, 342
14.4. Translation Is More Complex in Eukaryotes, 342
14.5. The Initial Insight That Proteins Are Important in Heredity Was Provided by the Study of Inborn Errors of Metabolism, 343
14.6. Studies of Neurospora Led to the One-Gene:One-Enzyme Hypothesis, 344
14.7. Studies of Human Hemoglobin Established That One Gene Encodes One Polypeptide, 346
14.8. The Nucleotide Sequence of a Gene and the Amino Acid Sequence of the Corresponding Protein Exhibit Colinearity, 349
14.9. Protein Structure Is the Basis of Biological Diversity, 349
14.10. Protein Function Is Directly Related to the Structure of the Molecule, 353
14.11. Proteins Are Made Up of One or More Functional Domains, 354
Chapter Summary, 357
Insights and Solutions, 357
Problems and Discussion Questions, 357
Selected Readings, 360
Fifteen. Gene Mutation, DNA Repair, and Transposition, 361
15.1. Mutations Are Classified in Various Ways, 362
15.2. The Spontaneous Mutation Rate Varies Greatly among Organisms, 365
15.3. Spontaneous Mutations Arise from Replication Errors and Base Modifications, 366
15.4. Induced Mutations Arise from DNA Damage Caused by Chemicals and Radiation, 369
15.5. Genomics and Gene Sequencing Have Enhanced Our Understanding of Mutations in Humans, 372
15.6. Genetic Techniques, Cell Cultures, and Pedigree Analysis Are All Used to Detect Mutations, 375
15.7. The Ames Test Is Used to Assess the Mutagenicity of Compounds, 377
15.8. Organisms Use DNA Repair Systems to Counteract Mutations, 377
15.9. Transposable Elements Move within the Genome and May Disrupt Genetic Function, 382
Chapter Summary, 386
Insights and Solutions, 388
Problems and Discussion Questions, 389
Selected Readings, 391
Sixteen. Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes, 392
16.1. Prokaryotes Exhibit Efficient Genetic Mechanisms to Respond to Environmental Conditions, 393
16.2. Lactose Metabolism in E. coli Is Regulated by an Inducible System, 393
16.3. The Catabolite-Activating Protein (CAP) Exerts Positive Control over the lac Operon, 398
16.4. Crystal Structure Analysis of Repressor Complexes Has Confirmed the Operon Model, 399
16.5. The tryptophan (trp) Operon in E. coli Is a Repressible Gene System, 401
16.6. Attenuation Is a Critical Process during the Regulation of the trp Operon in E. coli, 402
16.7. TRAP and AT Proteins Govern Attenuation in B. subtilis, 403
16.8. The ara Operon Is Controlled by a Regulator Protein That Exerts Both Positive and Negative Control, 404
Chapter Summary, 407
Insights and Solutions, 407
Problems and Discussion Questions, 408
Selected Readings, 410
Seventeen. Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes, 411
17.1. Eukaryotic Gene Regulation Differs from Regulation in Prokaryotes, 412
17.2. Chromosome Organization in the Nucleus Influences Gene Expression, 412
17.3. Transcription Initiation Is a Major Form of Gene Regulation, 413
17.4. Transcription in Eukaryotes Requires Several Steps, 415
17.5. Assembly of the Basal Transcription Complex Occurs at the Promoter, 417
17.6. Gene Regulation in a Model Organism: Positive Induction and Catabolite Repression in the gal Genes of Yeast, 420
17.7. DNA Methylation and Regulation of Gene Expression, 422
17.8. Posttranscriptional Regulation of Gene Expression, 423
17.9. Alternative Splicing and mRNA Stability Can Regulate Gene Expression, 426
Chapter Summary, 428
Insights and Solutions, 430
Problems and Discussion Questions, 430
Selected Readings, 433
Eighteen. Cell Cycle Regulation and Cancer, 434
18.1. Cancer Is a Genetic Disease, 435
18.2. Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Genomic Stability and DNA Repair, 437
18.3. Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Cell Cycle Regulation, 439
18.4. Many Cancer-Causing Genes Disrupt Control of the Cell Cycle, 442
18.5. Cancer Is a Genetic Disorder Affecting Cell–Cell Contact, 446
18.6. Predisposition to Some Cancers Can Be Inherited, 447
18.7. Viruses Contribute to Cancer in Both Humans and Animals, 449
18.8. Environmental Agents Contribute to Human Cancers, 451
Chapter Summary, 453
Insights and Solutions, 453
Problems and Discussion Questions, 454
Selected Readings, 456
Four. Genomic Analysis, 456
Nineteen. Recombinant DNA Technology, 457
19.1. Recombinant DNA Technology Combines Several Experimental Techniques, 458
19.2. Recombinant DNA Technology Is the Foundation of Genome Analysis, 458
19.3. Restriction Enzymes Cut DNA at Specific Recognition Sequences, 458
19.4. Vectors Carry DNA Molecules to Be Cloned, 460
19.5. DNA Was First Cloned in Prokaryotic Host Cells, 463
19.6. Yeast Cells Are Used as Eukaryotic Hosts for Cloning, 464
19.7. Genes Can Be Transferred to Eukaryotic Cells, 465
19.8. The Polymerase Chain Reaction Makes DNA Copies Without Host Cells, 466
19.9. Libraries Are Collections of Cloned Sequences, 468
19.10. Specific Clones Can Be Recovered from a Library, 470
19.11. Cloned Sequences Can Be Characterized in Several Ways, 471
19.12. DNA Sequencing Is the Ultimate Way to Characterize a Clone, 474
Chapter Summary, 478
Insights and Solutions, 480
Problems and Discussion Questions, 480
Selected Readings, 483
Twenty. Genomics and Proteomics, 484
20.1. Genomics: Sequencing Is the Basis for Identifying and Mapping All Genes in a Genome, 486
20.2. An Overview of Genomic Analysis, 487
20.3. Functional Genomics Classifies Genes and Identifies Their Functions, 488
20.4. Prokaryotic Genomes Have Some Unexpected Features, 491
20.5. Genomes of Eubacteria, 492
20.6. Eukaryotic Genomes Have Several Organizational Patterns, 493
20.7. The Human Genome: The Human Genome Project (HGP), 496
20.8. Comparative Genomics Is a Versatile Tool, 499
20.9. Comparative Genomics: Multigene Families Diversify Gene Function, 503
20.10. Proteomics Identifies and Analyzes the Proteins in a Cell, 505
Chapter Summary, 510
Insights and Solutions, 511
Problems and Discussion Questions, 511
Selected Readings, 515
Twenty One. Dissection of Gene Function: Mutational Analysis in Model Organisms, 516
21.1. Geneticists Use Model Organisms That Are Genetically Tractable, 517
21.2. Geneticists Dissect Gene Function Using Mutations and Forward Genetics, 523
21.3. Geneticists Dissect Gene Function Using Genomics and Reverse Genetics, 529
21.4. Geneticists Dissect Gene Function Using Functional Genomic and RNAi Technologies, 536
21.5. Geneticists Advance Our Understanding of Molecular Processes by Undertaking Genetic Research in Model Organisms: Three Case Studies, 538
Yeast: Cell Cycle Genes, 539
Drosophila: The Heidelberg Screens, 541
The Mouse: A Model for ALS Gene Therapy, 543
Chapter Summary, 544
Insights and Solutions, 545
Problems and Discussion Questions, 546
Selected Readings, 548
Twenty Two. Applications and Ethics of Biotechnology, 549
22.1. Biotechnology Has Revolutionized Agriculture, 550
22.2. Pharmaceutical Products Are Synthesized in Genetically Altered Organisms, 552
22.3. Biotechnology Is Used to Diagnose and Screen Genetic Disorders, 555
22.4. Genetic Disorders Can Be Treated by Gene Therapy, 560
22.5. Gene Therapy Raises Many Ethical Concerns, 563
22.6. Ethical Issues Are an Outgrowth of the Human Genome Project, 563
22.7. Finding and Mapping Genes in the Human Genome with Recombinant DNA Technology, 564
22.8. DNA Fingerprints Can Identify Individuals, 567
Chapter Summary, 570
Insights and Solutions, 570
Problems and Discussion Questions, 571
Selected Readings, 574
Five. Genetics of Organisms and Populations, 574
Twenty Three. Developmental Genetics of Model Organisms, 575
23.1. Developmental Genetics Seeks to Explain How a Differentiated State Develops from an Organism’s Genome, 576
23.2. Conservation of Developmental Mechanisms and the Use of Model Organisms, 577
23.3. Master Switch Genes Program Genomic Expression, 578
23.4. Genetics of Embryonic Development in Drosophila: Specification of the Body Axis, 579
23.5. Zygotic Genes Program Segment Formation in Drosophila, 583
23.6. Homeotic Genes Control the Developmental Fate of Segments along the Anterior–Posterior Axis, 585
23.7. Cascades of Gene Action Control Differentiation, 588
23.8. Plants Have Evolved Systems That Parallel the Hox Genes of Animals, 589
23.9. Cell–Cell Interactions in C. elegans Development, 590
23.10. Programmed Cell Death Is Required for Normal Development, 594
Chapter Summary, 596
Insights and Solutions, 596
Problems and Discussion Questions, 597
Selected Readings, 598
Twenty Four. Quantitative Genetics and Multifactorial Traits, 599
24.1. Not All Polygenic Traits Show Continuous Variation, 600
24.2. Quantitative Traits Can Be Explained in Mendelian Terms, 600
24.3. The Study of Polygenic Traits Relies on Statistical Analysis, 603
24.4. Heritability Estimates the Genetic Contribution to Phenotypic Variability, 605
24.5. Twin Studies Allow an Estimation of Heritability in Humans, 608
24.6. Quantitative Trait Loci Can Be Mapped, 609
Chapter Summary, 610
Insights and Solutions, 612
Problems and Discussion Questions, 613
Selected Readings, 616
Twenty Five. Population Genetics, 617
25.1. Allele Frequencies in Population Gene Pools Vary in Space and Time, 618
25.2. The Hardy–Weinberg Law Describes the Relationship between Allele Frequencies and Genotype Frequencies in an Ideal Population, 618
25.3. The Hardy–Weinberg Law Can Be Applied to Human Populations, 620
25.4. The Hardy–Weinberg Law Can Be Used for Multiple Alleles, X-Linked Traits, and Estimating Heterozygote Frequencies, 622
25.5. Natural Selection Is a Major Force Driving Allele Frequency Change, 624
25.6. Mutation Creates New Alleles in a Gene Pool, 629
25.7. Migration and Gene Flow Can Alter Allele Frequencies, 630
25.8. Genetic Drift Causes Random Changes in Allele Frequency in Small Populations, 632
25.9. Nonrandom Mating Changes Genotype Frequency but Not Allele Frequency, 632
Chapter Summary, 636
Insights and Solutions, 636
Problems and Discussion Questions, 637
Selected Readings, 638
Twenty Six. Evolutionary Genetics, 640
26.1. Speciation Can Occur by Transformation or by Splitting Gene Pools, 641
26.2. Most Populations and Species Harbor Considerable Genetic Variation, 642
26.3. The Genetic Structure of Populations Changes across Space and Time, 644
26.4. The Definition of Species Is a Great Challenge for Evolutionary Biology, 647
26.5. A Reduction in Gene Flow between Populations, Accompanied by Divergent Selection or Genetic Drift, Can Lead to Speciation, 647
26.6. We Can Use Genetic Differences among Populations or Species to Reconstruct Evolutionary History, 653
26.7. Reconstructing Evolutionary History Allows Us to Answer a Variety of Questions, 656
Chapter Summary, 658
Insights and Solutions, 660
Problems and Discussion Questions, 660
Selected Readings, 662
Twenty Seven. Conservation Genetics, 663
27.1. Genetic Diversity Is at the Heart of Conservation Genetics, 664
27.2. Population Size Has a Major Impact on Species Survival, 666
27.3. Genetic Effects Are More Pronounced in Small, Isolated Populations, 668
27.4. Genetic Erosion Diminishes Genetic Diversity, 670
27.5. Conservation of Genetic Diversity Is Essential to Species Survival, 670
Chapter Summary, 675
Insights and Solutions, 675
Problems and Discussion Questions, 675
Selected Readings, 677
A. Glossary, A-1
B. Answers to Selected Problems, A-17
Chapter 1, A-17
Chapter 2, A-17
Chapter 3, A-18
Chapter 4, A-19
Chapter 5, A-22
Chapter 6, A-24
Chapter 7, A-25
Chapter 8, A-26
Chapter 9, A-27
Chapter 10, A-28
Chapter 11, A-29
Chapter 12, A-30
Chapter 13, A-31
Chapter 14, A-33
Chapter 15, A-34
Chapter 16, A-36
Chapter 17, A-37
Chapter 18, A-38
Chapter 19, A-39
Chapter 20, A-40
Chapter 21, A-41
Chapter 22, A-43
Chapter 23, A-44
Chapter 24, A-45
Chapter 25, A-47
Chapter 26, A-48
Chapter 27, A-49
Credits, C-1
Front Matter, C-1
Chapter 1: Introduction to Genetics, C-1
Chapter 2: Mitosis and Meiosis, C-1
Chapter 3: Mendelian Genetics, C-1
Chapter 4: Extensions of Mendelian Genetics, C-1
Chapter 5: Chromosome Mapping in Eukaryotes, C-2
Chapter 6: Genetic Analysis and Mapping in Bacteria and Bacteriophages, C-2
Chapter 7: Sex Determination and Sex Chromosomes, C-2
Chapter 8: Chromosome Mutations: Variation in Chromosome Number and Arrangement, C-2
Chapter 9: Extranuclear Inheritance, C-2
Chapter 10: DNA Structure and Analysis, C-2
Chapter 11: DNA Replication and Recombination, C-2
Chapter 12: DNA Organization in Chromosomes, C-2
Chapter 13: The Genetic Code and Transcription, C-2
Chapter 14: Translation and Proteins, C-2
Chapter 15: Gene Mutation, DNA Repair, and Transposition, C-2
Chapter 16: Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes, C-2
Chapter 17: Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes, C-3
Chapter 18: Cell Cycle and Cancer, C-3
Chapter 19: Recombinant DNA Technology, C-3
Chapter 20: Genomics and Proteomics, C-3
Chapter 21: Dissection of Gene Function: Mutational Analysis in Model Organisms, C-3
Chapter 22: Applications and Ethics of Biotechnology, C-3
Chapter 23: Developmental Genetics of Model Organisms, C-4
Chapter 24: Quantitative Genetics and Multifactorial Traits, C-4
Chapter 25: Population Genetics, C-4
Chapter 26: Evolutionary Genetics, C-4
Chapter 27: Conservation Genetics, C-4
Index, I-1-1

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