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Concepts of Genetics

by William S. Klug - The College of New Jersey; Michael R. Cummings - Illinois Institute of Technology; Charlotte A. Spencer - University of Alberta

Publisher: Benjamin Cummings

Publishing Date: 2005/03/18

eText ISBN-10: 0-13-187335-0

eText ISBN-13: 978-0-13-187335-3

Print ISBN-10: 0-13-169944-X

Print ISBN-13: 978-0-13-169944-1

Course: Genetics, Genetics

Pages: 784

eTextbook $76.67

(180 day subscription)

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Table of Contents | Description

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ABOUT THIS TITLE - TABLE OF CONTENTS

About the Authors, vi

Preface, ii

One. Genes, Chromosomes, and Heredity, xxviii

One. Introduction to Genetics, 1

1.1. From Mendel to DNA in Less Than a Century, 2

1.2. Discovery of the Double Helix Launched the Recombinant DNA Era, 5

1.3. Genomics Grew Out of Recombinant DNA Technology, 7

1.4. The Impact of Biotechnology Is Growing, 9

1.5. Genetic Studies Rely On the Use of Model Organisms, 11

1.6. We Live in the “Age of Genetics”, 14

Chapter Summary, 15

Problems and Discussion Questions, 15

Selected Readings, 16

Two. Mitosis and Meiosis, 17

2.1. Cell Structure Is Closely Tied to Genetic Function, 18

2.2. In Diploid Organisms, Chromosomes Exist in Homologous Pairs, 20

2.3. Mitosis Partitions Chromosomes into Dividing Cells, 23

2.4. Meiosis Reduces the Chromosome Number from Diploid to Haploid in Germ Cells and Spores, 27

2.5. The Development of Gametes Varies during Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis, 31

2.6. Meiosis Is Critical to the Successful Sexual Reproduction of All Diploid Organisms, 32

2.7. Electron Microscopy Has Revealed the Cytological Nature of Mitotic and Meiotic Chromosomes, 33

Chapter Summary, 35

Insights and Solutions, 36

Problems and Discussion Questions, 37

Selected Readings, 38

Three. Mendelian Genetics, 39

3.1. Mendel Used a Model Experimental Approach to Study Patterns of Inheritance, 40

3.2. The Monohybrid Cross Reveals How One Trait Is Transmitted from Generation to Generation, 40

3.3. Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross Revealed His Fourth Postulate: Independent Assortment, 44

3.4. The Trihybrid Cross Demonstrates That Mendel’s Principles Apply to Inheritance of Multiple Traits, 47

3.5. Mendel’s Work Was Rediscovered in the Early Twentieth Century, 49

3.6. The Correlation of Mendel’s Postulates with the Behavior of Chromosomes Formed the Foundation of Modern Transmission Genetics, 49

3.7. Independent Assortment Leads to Extensive Genetic Variation, 51

3.8. Laws of Probability Help to Explain Genetic Events, 51

3.9. Chi-Square Analysis Evaluates the Influence of Chance on Genetic Data, 54

3.10. Pedigrees Reveal Patterns of Inheritance in Humans, 56

Chapter Summary, 59

Insights and Solutions, 60

Problems and Discussion Questions, 62

Selected Readings, 65

Four. Extensions of Mendelian Genetics, 66

4.1. Alleles Alter Phenotypes in Different Ways, 67

4.2. Geneticists Use a Variety of Symbols for Alleles, 68

4.3. In Incomplete Dominance, Neither Allele Is Dominant, 68

4.4. In Codominance, the Influence of Both Alleles in a Heterozygote Is Clearly Evident, 69

4.5. Multiple Alleles of a Gene May Exist in a Population, 70

4.6. Lethal Alleles Represent Essential Genes, 72

4.7. Combinations of Two Gene Pairs Involving Two Modes of Inheritance Modify the 9:3:3:1 Ratio, 74

4.8. Phenotypes Are Often Affected by More Than One Gene, 75

4.9. Expression of a Single Gene May Have Multiple Effects, 80

4.10. X-Linkage Describes Genes on the X Chromosome, 81

4.11. In Sex-Limited and Sex-Influenced Inheritance, an Individual’s Sex Influences the Phenotype, 84

4.12. Phenotypic Expression Is Not Always a Direct Reflection of the Genotype, 85

Chapter Summary, 91

Insights and Solutions, 91

Problems and Discussion Questions, 93

Five. Chromosome Mapping in Eukaryotes, 100

5.1. Genes Linked on the Same Chromosome Segregate Together, 101

5.2. Crossing Over Serves as the Basis of Determining the Distance between Genes during Chromosome Mapping, 104

5.3. Determining the Gene Sequence during Mapping Relies on the Analysis of Multiple Crossovers, 107

5.4. Interference Affects the Recovery of Multiple Exchanges, 114

5.5. As the Distance between Two Genes Increases, Mapping Experiments Become More Inaccurate, 115

5.6. Drosophila Genes Have Been Extensively Mapped, 116

5.7. Crossing Over Involves a Physical Exchange between Chromatids, 117

5.8. Recombination Occurs between Mitotic Chromosomes, 118

5.9. Exchanges Also Occur between Sister Chromatids, 120

5.10. Linkage Analysis and Mapping Can Be Performed in Haploid Organisms, 120

5.11. Lod Score Analysis and Somatic Cell Hybridization Were Historically Important in Creating Human Chromosome Maps, 126

5.12. Gene Mapping Is Now Possible Using Molecular Analysis of DNA, 128

5.13. Did Mendel Encounter Linkage?, 128

Chapter Summary, 129

Insights and Solutions, 130

Problems and Discussion Questions, 132

Selected Readings, 136

Six. Genetic Analysis and Mapping in Bacteria and Bacteriophages, 137

6.1. Bacteria Mutate Spontaneously and Grow at an Exponential Rate, 138

6.2. Conjugation Is One Means of Genetic Recombination in Bacteria, 139

6.3. Mutational Analysis Led to the Discovery of the Rec Proteins Essential to Bacterial Recombination, 146

6.4. F Factors Are Plasmids, 146

6.5. Transformation Is Another Process Leading to Genetic Recombination in Bacteria, 147

6.6. Bacteriophages Are Bacterial Viruses, 148

6.7. Transduction Is Virus-Mediated Bacterial DNA Transfer, 151

6.8. Bacteriophages Undergo Intergenic Recombination, 153

6.9. Intragenic Recombination Occurs in Phage T4, 154

Chapter Summary, 160

Insights and Solutions, 160

Problems and Discussion Questions, 161

Extra-Spicy Problems, 163

Selected Readings, 164

Seven. Sex Determination and Sex Chromosomes, 165

7.1. Sexual Differentiation and Life Cycles, 166

7.2. X and Y Chromosomes Were First Linked to Sex Determination Early in the 20th Century, 169

7.3. The Y Chromosome Determines Maleness in Humans, 170

7.4. The Ratio of Males to Females in Humans Is Not 1.0, 175

7.5. Dosage Compensation Prevents Excessive Expression of X-Linked Genes in Humans and Other Mammals, 175

7.6. The Ratio of X Chromosomes to Sets of Autosomes Determines Sex in Drosophila, 178

7.7. Temperature Variation Controls Sex Determination in Reptiles, 181

Chapter Summary, 182

Insights and Solutions, 184

Problems and Discussion Questions, 184

Selected Readings, 186

Eight. Chromosome Mutations: Variation in Chromosome Number and Arrangement, 187

8.1. Specific Terminology Describes Variations in Chromosome Number, 188

8.2. Variation in the Number of Chromosomes Results from Nondisjunction, 188

8.3. Monosomy, the Loss of a Single Chromosome, May Have Severe Phenotypic Effects, 189

8.4. Trisomy Involves the Addition of a Chromosome to a Diploid Genome, 190

8.5. Polyploidy, in Which More Than Two Haploid Sets of Chromosomes Are Present, Is Prevalent in Plants, 194

8.6. Variation Occurs in the Structure and Arrangement of Chromosomes, 198

8.7. A Deletion Is a Missing Region of a Chromosome, 199

8.8. A Duplication Is a Repeated Segment of the Genetic Material, 200

8.9. Inversions Rearrange the Linear Gene Sequence, 203

8.10. Translocations Alter the Location of Chromosomal Segments in the Genome, 206

8.11. Fragile Sites in Humans Are Susceptible to Chromosome Breakage, 208

Chapter Summary, 210

Insights and Solutions, 210

Problems and Discussion Questions, 211

Selected Readings, 213

Nine. Extranuclear Inheritance, 214

9.1. Organelle Heredity Involves DNA in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria, 215

9.2. Knowledge of Mitochondrial and Chloroplast DNA Helps Explain Organelle Heredity, 218

9.3. Mutations in Mitochondrial DNA Cause Human Disorders, 221

9.4. Infectious Heredity Is Based on a Symbiotic Relationship between Host Organism and Invader, 222

9.5. In Maternal Effect, the Maternal Genotype Has a Strong Influence during Early Development, 224

Chapter Summary, 227

Insights and Solutions, 228

Problems and Discussion Questions, 228

Selected Readings, 230

Two. DNA: Structure, Replication, and Variation, 230

Ten. DNA Structure and Analysis, 231

10.1. The Genetic Material Must Exhibit Four Characteristics, 232

10.2. Until 1944, Observations Favored Protein as the Genetic Material, 233

10.3. Evidence Favoring DNA as the Genetic Material Was First Obtained during the Study of Bacteria and Bacteriophages, 233

10.4. Indirect and Direct Evidence Supports the Concept that DNA Is the Genetic Material in Eukaryotes, 239

10.5. RNA Serves as the Genetic Material in Some Viruses, 240

10.6. Knowledge of Nucleic Acid Chemistry Is Essential to the Understanding of DNA Structure, 241

10.7. The Structure of DNA Holds the Key to Understanding Its Function, 243

10.8. Alternative Forms of DNA Exist, 248

10.9. The Structure of RNA Is Chemically Similar to DNA, but Single Stranded, 249

10.10. Many Analytical Techniques Have Been Useful during the Investigation of DNA and RNA, 251

Chapter Summary, 259

Insights and Solutions, 259

Problems and Discussion Questions, 260

Selected Readings, 262

Eleven. DNA Replication and Recombination, 263

11.1. DNA Is Reproduced by Semiconservative Replication, 264

11.2. DNA Synthesis in Bacteria Involves Five Polymerases, as well as Other Enzymes, 268

11.3. Many Complex Issues Must Be Resolved during DNA Replication, 271

11.4. The DNA Helix Must Be Unwound, 271

11.5. Initiation of DNA Synthesis Requires an RNA Primer, 272

11.6. Antiparallel Strands Require Continuous and Discontinuous DNA Synthesis, 272

11.7. Concurrent Synthesis Occurs on the Leading and Lagging Strands, 273

11.8. Proofreading and Error Correction Are an Integral Part of DNA Replication, 273

11.9. A Coherent Model Summarizes DNA Replication, 273

11.10. Replication Is Controlled by a Variety of Genes, 274

11.11. Eukaryotic DNA Synthesis Is Similar to Synthesis in Prokaryotes, but More Complex, 275

11.12. The Ends of Linear Chromosomes Are Problematic during Replication, 276

11.13. DNA Recombination, Like DNA Replication, Is Directed by Specific Enzymes, 278

11.14. Gene Conversion Is a Consequence of DNA Recombination, 279

Chapter Summary, 282

Insights and Solutions, 282

Problems and Discussion Questions, 283

Selected Readings, 285

Twelve. DNA Organization in Chromosomes, 286

12.1. Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes Are Relatively Simple DNA Molecules, 287

12.2. Supercoiling Is Common in the DNA of Viral and Bacterial Chromosomes, 289

12.3. Specialized Chromosomes Reveal Variations in Structure, 290

12.4. DNA Is Organized into Chromatin in Eukaryotes, 292

12.5. Chromosome Banding Differentiates Regions along the Mitotic Chromosome, 296

12.6. Eukaryotic Chromosomes Demonstrate Complex Organization Characterized by Repetitive DNA, 297

12.7. The Vast Majority of a Eukaryotic Genome Does Not Encode Functional Genes, 301

Chapter Summary, 301

Insights and Solutions, 302

Problems and Discussion Questions, 302

Selected Readings, 305

Three. Expression and Regulation of Genetic Information, 305

Thirteen. The Genetic Code and Transcription, 306

13.1. The Genetic Code Exhibits a Number of Characteristics, 307

13.2. Early Studies Established the Basic Operational Patterns of the Code, 307

13.3. Studies by Nirenberg, Matthaei, and Others Led to Deciphering of the Code, 309

13.4. The Coding Dictionary Reveals Several Interesting Patterns among the 64 Codons, 313

13.5. The Genetic Code Has Been Confirmed in Studies of Phage MS2, 315

13.6. The Genetic Code Is Nearly Universal, 315

13.7. Different Initiation Points Create Overlapping Genes, 316

13.8. Transcription Synthesizes RNA on a DNA Template, 317

13.9. Studies with Bacteria and Phages Provided Evidence for the Existence of mRNA, 317

13.10. RNA Polymerase Directs RNA Synthesis, 318

13.11. Transcription in Eukaryotes Differs from Prokaryotic Transcription in Several Ways, 320

13.12. The Coding Regions of Eukaryotic Genes Are Interrupted by Intervening Sequences, 323

13.13. Transcription Has Been Visualized by Electron Microscopy, 326

Chapter Summary, 329

Insights and Solutions, 329

Problems and Discussion Questions, 330

Selected Readings, 333

Fourteen. Translation and Proteins, 334

14.1. Translation of mRNA Depends on Ribosomes and Transfer RNAs, 335

14.2. Translation of mRNA Can Be Divided into Three Steps, 338

14.3. Crystallographic Analysis Has Revealed Many Details about the Functional Prokaryotic Ribosome, 342

14.4. Translation Is More Complex in Eukaryotes, 342

14.5. The Initial Insight That Proteins Are Important in Heredity Was Provided by the Study of Inborn Errors of Metabolism, 343

14.6. Studies of Neurospora Led to the One-Gene:One-Enzyme Hypothesis, 344

14.7. Studies of Human Hemoglobin Established That One Gene Encodes One Polypeptide, 346

14.8. The Nucleotide Sequence of a Gene and the Amino Acid Sequence of the Corresponding Protein Exhibit Colinearity, 349

14.9. Protein Structure Is the Basis of Biological Diversity, 349

14.10. Protein Function Is Directly Related to the Structure of the Molecule, 353

14.11. Proteins Are Made Up of One or More Functional Domains, 354

Chapter Summary, 357

Insights and Solutions, 357

Problems and Discussion Questions, 357

Selected Readings, 360

Fifteen. Gene Mutation, DNA Repair, and Transposition, 361

15.1. Mutations Are Classified in Various Ways, 362

15.2. The Spontaneous Mutation Rate Varies Greatly among Organisms, 365

15.3. Spontaneous Mutations Arise from Replication Errors and Base Modifications, 366

15.4. Induced Mutations Arise from DNA Damage Caused by Chemicals and Radiation, 369

15.5. Genomics and Gene Sequencing Have Enhanced Our Understanding of Mutations in Humans, 372

15.6. Genetic Techniques, Cell Cultures, and Pedigree Analysis Are All Used to Detect Mutations, 375

15.7. The Ames Test Is Used to Assess the Mutagenicity of Compounds, 377

15.8. Organisms Use DNA Repair Systems to Counteract Mutations, 377

15.9. Transposable Elements Move within the Genome and May Disrupt Genetic Function, 382

Chapter Summary, 386

Insights and Solutions, 388

Problems and Discussion Questions, 389

Selected Readings, 391

Sixteen. Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes, 392

16.1. Prokaryotes Exhibit Efficient Genetic Mechanisms to Respond to Environmental Conditions, 393

16.2. Lactose Metabolism in E. coli Is Regulated by an Inducible System, 393

16.3. The Catabolite-Activating Protein (CAP) Exerts Positive Control over the lac Operon, 398

16.4. Crystal Structure Analysis of Repressor Complexes Has Confirmed the Operon Model, 399

16.5. The tryptophan (trp) Operon in E. coli Is a Repressible Gene System, 401

16.6. Attenuation Is a Critical Process during the Regulation of the trp Operon in E. coli, 402

16.7. TRAP and AT Proteins Govern Attenuation in B. subtilis, 403

16.8. The ara Operon Is Controlled by a Regulator Protein That Exerts Both Positive and Negative Control, 404

Chapter Summary, 407

Insights and Solutions, 407

Problems and Discussion Questions, 408

Selected Readings, 410

Seventeen. Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes, 411

17.1. Eukaryotic Gene Regulation Differs from Regulation in Prokaryotes, 412

17.2. Chromosome Organization in the Nucleus Influences Gene Expression, 412

17.3. Transcription Initiation Is a Major Form of Gene Regulation, 413

17.4. Transcription in Eukaryotes Requires Several Steps, 415

17.5. Assembly of the Basal Transcription Complex Occurs at the Promoter, 417

17.6. Gene Regulation in a Model Organism: Positive Induction and Catabolite Repression in the gal Genes of Yeast, 420

17.7. DNA Methylation and Regulation of Gene Expression, 422

17.8. Posttranscriptional Regulation of Gene Expression, 423

17.9. Alternative Splicing and mRNA Stability Can Regulate Gene Expression, 426

Chapter Summary, 428

Insights and Solutions, 430

Problems and Discussion Questions, 430

Selected Readings, 433

Eighteen. Cell Cycle Regulation and Cancer, 434

18.1. Cancer Is a Genetic Disease, 435

18.2. Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Genomic Stability and DNA Repair, 437

18.3. Cancer Cells Contain Genetic Defects Affecting Cell Cycle Regulation, 439

18.4. Many Cancer-Causing Genes Disrupt Control of the Cell Cycle, 442

18.5. Cancer Is a Genetic Disorder Affecting Cell–Cell Contact, 446

18.6. Predisposition to Some Cancers Can Be Inherited, 447

18.7. Viruses Contribute to Cancer in Both Humans and Animals, 449

18.8. Environmental Agents Contribute to Human Cancers, 451

Chapter Summary, 453

Insights and Solutions, 453

Problems and Discussion Questions, 454

Selected Readings, 456

Four. Genomic Analysis, 456

Nineteen. Recombinant DNA Technology, 457

19.1. Recombinant DNA Technology Combines Several Experimental Techniques, 458

19.2. Recombinant DNA Technology Is the Foundation of Genome Analysis, 458

19.3. Restriction Enzymes Cut DNA at Specific Recognition Sequences, 458

19.4. Vectors Carry DNA Molecules to Be Cloned, 460

19.5. DNA Was First Cloned in Prokaryotic Host Cells, 463

19.6. Yeast Cells Are Used as Eukaryotic Hosts for Cloning, 464

19.7. Genes Can Be Transferred to Eukaryotic Cells, 465

19.8. The Polymerase Chain Reaction Makes DNA Copies Without Host Cells, 466

19.9. Libraries Are Collections of Cloned Sequences, 468

19.10. Specific Clones Can Be Recovered from a Library, 470

19.11. Cloned Sequences Can Be Characterized in Several Ways, 471

19.12. DNA Sequencing Is the Ultimate Way to Characterize a Clone, 474

Chapter Summary, 478

Insights and Solutions, 480

Problems and Discussion Questions, 480

Selected Readings, 483

Twenty. Genomics and Proteomics, 484

20.1. Genomics: Sequencing Is the Basis for Identifying and Mapping All Genes in a Genome, 486

20.2. An Overview of Genomic Analysis, 487

20.3. Functional Genomics Classifies Genes and Identifies Their Functions, 488

20.4. Prokaryotic Genomes Have Some Unexpected Features, 491

20.5. Genomes of Eubacteria, 492

20.6. Eukaryotic Genomes Have Several Organizational Patterns, 493

20.7. The Human Genome: The Human Genome Project (HGP), 496

20.8. Comparative Genomics Is a Versatile Tool, 499

20.9. Comparative Genomics: Multigene Families Diversify Gene Function, 503

20.10. Proteomics Identifies and Analyzes the Proteins in a Cell, 505

Chapter Summary, 510

Insights and Solutions, 511

Problems and Discussion Questions, 511

Selected Readings, 515

Twenty One. Dissection of Gene Function: Mutational Analysis in Model Organisms, 516

21.1. Geneticists Use Model Organisms That Are Genetically Tractable, 517

21.2. Geneticists Dissect Gene Function Using Mutations and Forward Genetics, 523

21.3. Geneticists Dissect Gene Function Using Genomics and Reverse Genetics, 529

21.4. Geneticists Dissect Gene Function Using Functional Genomic and RNAi Technologies, 536

21.5. Geneticists Advance Our Understanding of Molecular Processes by Undertaking Genetic Research in Model Organisms: Three Case Studies, 538

Yeast: Cell Cycle Genes, 539

Drosophila: The Heidelberg Screens, 541

The Mouse: A Model for ALS Gene Therapy, 543

Chapter Summary, 544

Insights and Solutions, 545

Problems and Discussion Questions, 546

Selected Readings, 548

Twenty Two. Applications and Ethics of Biotechnology, 549

22.1. Biotechnology Has Revolutionized Agriculture, 550

22.2. Pharmaceutical Products Are Synthesized in Genetically Altered Organisms, 552

22.3. Biotechnology Is Used to Diagnose and Screen Genetic Disorders, 555

22.4. Genetic Disorders Can Be Treated by Gene Therapy, 560

22.5. Gene Therapy Raises Many Ethical Concerns, 563

22.6. Ethical Issues Are an Outgrowth of the Human Genome Project, 563

22.7. Finding and Mapping Genes in the Human Genome with Recombinant DNA Technology, 564

22.8. DNA Fingerprints Can Identify Individuals, 567

Chapter Summary, 570

Insights and Solutions, 570

Problems and Discussion Questions, 571

Selected Readings, 574

Five. Genetics of Organisms and Populations, 574

Twenty Three. Developmental Genetics of Model Organisms, 575

23.1. Developmental Genetics Seeks to Explain How a Differentiated State Develops from an Organism’s Genome, 576

23.2. Conservation of Developmental Mechanisms and the Use of Model Organisms, 577

23.3. Master Switch Genes Program Genomic Expression, 578

23.4. Genetics of Embryonic Development in Drosophila: Specification of the Body Axis, 579

23.5. Zygotic Genes Program Segment Formation in Drosophila, 583

23.6. Homeotic Genes Control the Developmental Fate of Segments along the Anterior–Posterior Axis, 585

23.7. Cascades of Gene Action Control Differentiation, 588

23.8. Plants Have Evolved Systems That Parallel the Hox Genes of Animals, 589

23.9. Cell–Cell Interactions in C. elegans Development, 590

23.10. Programmed Cell Death Is Required for Normal Development, 594

Chapter Summary, 596

Insights and Solutions, 596

Problems and Discussion Questions, 597

Selected Readings, 598

Twenty Four. Quantitative Genetics and Multifactorial Traits, 599

24.1. Not All Polygenic Traits Show Continuous Variation, 600

24.2. Quantitative Traits Can Be Explained in Mendelian Terms, 600

24.3. The Study of Polygenic Traits Relies on Statistical Analysis, 603

24.4. Heritability Estimates the Genetic Contribution to Phenotypic Variability, 605

24.5. Twin Studies Allow an Estimation of Heritability in Humans, 608

24.6. Quantitative Trait Loci Can Be Mapped, 609

Chapter Summary, 610

Insights and Solutions, 612

Problems and Discussion Questions, 613

Selected Readings, 616

Twenty Five. Population Genetics, 617

25.1. Allele Frequencies in Population Gene Pools Vary in Space and Time, 618

25.2. The Hardy–Weinberg Law Describes the Relationship between Allele Frequencies and Genotype Frequencies in an Ideal Population, 618

25.3. The Hardy–Weinberg Law Can Be Applied to Human Populations, 620

25.4. The Hardy–Weinberg Law Can Be Used for Multiple Alleles, X-Linked Traits, and Estimating Heterozygote Frequencies, 622

25.5. Natural Selection Is a Major Force Driving Allele Frequency Change, 624

25.6. Mutation Creates New Alleles in a Gene Pool, 629

25.7. Migration and Gene Flow Can Alter Allele Frequencies, 630

25.8. Genetic Drift Causes Random Changes in Allele Frequency in Small Populations, 632

25.9. Nonrandom Mating Changes Genotype Frequency but Not Allele Frequency, 632

Chapter Summary, 636

Insights and Solutions, 636

Problems and Discussion Questions, 637

Selected Readings, 638

Twenty Six. Evolutionary Genetics, 640

26.1. Speciation Can Occur by Transformation or by Splitting Gene Pools, 641

26.2. Most Populations and Species Harbor Considerable Genetic Variation, 642

26.3. The Genetic Structure of Populations Changes across Space and Time, 644

26.4. The Definition of Species Is a Great Challenge for Evolutionary Biology, 647

26.5. A Reduction in Gene Flow between Populations, Accompanied by Divergent Selection or Genetic Drift, Can Lead to Speciation, 647

26.6. We Can Use Genetic Differences among Populations or Species to Reconstruct Evolutionary History, 653

26.7. Reconstructing Evolutionary History Allows Us to Answer a Variety of Questions, 656

Chapter Summary, 658

Insights and Solutions, 660

Problems and Discussion Questions, 660

Selected Readings, 662

Twenty Seven. Conservation Genetics, 663

27.1. Genetic Diversity Is at the Heart of Conservation Genetics, 664

27.2. Population Size Has a Major Impact on Species Survival, 666

27.3. Genetic Effects Are More Pronounced in Small, Isolated Populations, 668

27.4. Genetic Erosion Diminishes Genetic Diversity, 670

27.5. Conservation of Genetic Diversity Is Essential to Species Survival, 670

Chapter Summary, 675

Insights and Solutions, 675

Problems and Discussion Questions, 675

Selected Readings, 677

A. Glossary, A-1

B. Answers to Selected Problems, A-17

Chapter 1: Introduction to Genetics, C-1

Chapter 2: Mitosis and Meiosis, C-1

Chapter 3: Mendelian Genetics, C-1

Chapter 4: Extensions of Mendelian Genetics, C-1

Chapter 5: Chromosome Mapping in Eukaryotes, C-2

Chapter 6: Genetic Analysis and Mapping in Bacteria and Bacteriophages, C-2

Chapter 7: Sex Determination and Sex Chromosomes, C-2

Chapter 8: Chromosome Mutations: Variation in Chromosome Number and Arrangement, C-2

Chapter 9: Extranuclear Inheritance, C-2

Chapter 10: DNA Structure and Analysis, C-2

Chapter 11: DNA Replication and Recombination, C-2

Chapter 12: DNA Organization in Chromosomes, C-2

Chapter 13: The Genetic Code and Transcription, C-2

Chapter 14: Translation and Proteins, C-2

Chapter 15: Gene Mutation, DNA Repair, and Transposition, C-2

Chapter 16: Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes, C-2

Chapter 17: Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes, C-3

Chapter 18: Cell Cycle and Cancer, C-3

Chapter 19: Recombinant DNA Technology, C-3

Chapter 20: Genomics and Proteomics, C-3

Chapter 21: Dissection of Gene Function: Mutational Analysis in Model Organisms, C-3

Chapter 22: Applications and Ethics of Biotechnology, C-3

Chapter 23: Developmental Genetics of Model Organisms, C-4

Chapter 24: Quantitative Genetics and Multifactorial Traits, C-4

Chapter 25: Population Genetics, C-4

Chapter 26: Evolutionary Genetics, C-4

Chapter 27: Conservation Genetics, C-4

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