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Internetworking With TCP/IP: Volume I Principles, Protocols, and Architecture, Fifth Edition

by Douglas E. Comer - Cisco Systems, Boxborough, MA 01719 and Department of Computer Sciences Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907

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Copyright, iv
Foreword, xxiii
Foreword To The First Edition By The Late Jon Postel, xxv
Preface, xxvii
What Others Have Said About The Fifth Edition Of Internetworking With TCP/IP, xxxi
About The Author, xxxiii
1. Introduction And Overview, 1
1.1. The Motivation For Internetworking, xxxiv
1.2. The TCP/IP Internet, 2
1.3. Internet Services, 2
1.4. History And Scope Of The Internet, 5
1.5. The Internet Architecture Board, 7
1.6. The IAB Reorganization, 7
1.7. Internet Request For Comments, 8
1.8. Future Growth And Technology, 9
1.9. Organization Of The Text, 10
1.10. Summary, 10
For Further Study, 11
Exercises, 11
2. Review Of Underlying Network Technologies, 13
2.1. Introduction, 13
2.2. Two Approaches To Network Communication, 14
2.3. Wide Area And Local Area Networks, 15
2.4. Ethernet Technology, 16
2.5. Switched Ethernet, 24
2.6. Asynchronous Transfer Mode, 25
2.7. Summary, 27
For Further Study, 28
Exercises, 28
3. Internetworking Concept And Architectural Model, 31
3.1. Introduction, 31
3.2. Application-Level Interconnection, 31
3.3. Network-Level Interconnection, 32
3.4. Properties Of The Internet, 33
3.5. Internet Architecture, 34
3.6. Interconnection Through IP Routers, 35
3.7. The User’s View, 36
3.8. All Networks Are Equal, 37
3.9. The Unanswered Questions, 38
3.10. Summary, 38
For Further Study, 38
Exercises, 39
4. Classful Internet Addresses, 41
4.1. Introduction, 41
4.2. Universal Identifiers, 41
4.3. The Original Classful Addressing Scheme, 42
4.4. Addresses Specify Network Connections, 43
4.5. Network And Directed Broadcast Addresses, 43
4.6. Limited Broadcast, 44
4.7. The All-0s Address, 45
4.8. Subnet And Classless Extensions, 45
4.9. IP Multicast Addresses, 45
4.10. Weaknesses In Internet Addressing, 46
4.11. Dotted Decimal Notation, 47
4.12. Loopback Address, 48
4.13. Summary Of Special Address Conventions, 48
4.14. Internet Addressing Authority, 48
4.15. Reserved Address Prefixes, 50
4.16. An Example, 50
4.17. Network Byte Order, 52
4.18. Summary, 52
For Further Study, 53
Exercises, 53
5. Mapping Internet Addresses To Physical Addresses (ARP), 57
5.1. Introduction, 57
5.2. The Address Resolution Problem, 57
5.3. Two Types Of Physical Addresses, 58
5.4. Resolution Through Direct Mapping, 58
5.5. Resolution Through Dynamic Binding, 59
5.6. The Address Resolution Cache, 60
5.7. ARP Cache Timeout, 61
5.8. ARP Refinements, 62
5.9. Relationship Of ARP To Other Protocols, 62
5.10. ARP Implementation, 62
5.11. ARP Encapsulation And Identification, 64
5.12. ARP Protocol Format, 64
5.13. Automatic ARP Cache Revalidation, 66
5.14. Reverse Address Resolution (RARP), 66
5.15. Summary, 67
For Further Study, 67
Exercises, 67
6. Internet Protocol: Connectionless Datagram Delivery (IPv4), 71
6.1. Introduction, 71
6.2. A Virtual Network, 71
6.3. Internet Architecture And Philosophy, 72
6.4. The Conceptual Service Organization, 72
6.5. Connectionless Delivery System, 73
6.6. Purpose Of The Internet Protocol, 73
6.7. The IPv4 Datagram, 74
6.8. Internet Datagram Options, 83
6.9. Summary, 89
For Further Study, 90
Exercises, 90
7. Internet Protocol: Forwarding IP Datagrams, 93
7.1. Introduction, 93
7.2. Forwarding In An Internet, 93
7.3. Direct And Indirect Delivery, 95
7.4. Table-Driven IP Forwarding, 97
7.5. Next-Hop Forwarding, 97
7.6. Default Routes, 100
7.7. Host-Specific Routes, 100
7.8. The IP Forwarding Algorithm, 100
7.9. Forwarding With IP Addresses, 101
7.10. Handling Incoming Datagrams, 103
7.11. Establishing Routing Tables, 104
7.12. Summary, 104
For Further Study, 105
Exercises, 105
8. Internet Protocol: Error And Control Messages (ICMP), 109
8.1. Introduction, 109
8.2. The Internet Control Message Protocol, 109
8.3. Error Reporting Vs. Error Correction, 110
8.4. ICMP Message Delivery, 111
8.5. ICMP Message Format, 112
8.6. Testing Destination Reachability And Status (Ping), 113
8.7. Echo Request And Reply Message Format, 114
8.8. Reports Of Unreachable Destinations, 115
8.9. Congestion And Datagram Flow Control, 116
8.10. Source Quench Format, 117
8.11. Route Change Requests From Routers, 118
8.12. Detecting Circular Or Excessively Long Routes, 119
8.13. Reporting Other Problems, 120
8.14. Clock Synchronization And Transit Time Estimation, 121
8.15. Older ICMP Messages No Longer Needed, 122
8.16. Summary, 123
For Further Study, 123
Exercises, 124
9. Classless And Subnet Address Extensions (CIDR), 127
9.1. Introduction, 127
9.2. Review Of Relevant Facts, 127
9.3. Minimizing Network Numbers, 128
9.4. Proxy ARP, 128
9.5. Subnet Addressing, 130
9.6. Flexibility In Subnet Address Assignment, 132
9.7. Variable-Length Subnets, 134
9.8. Implementation Of Subnets With Masks, 135
9.9. Subnet Mask Representation, 136
9.10. Forwarding In The Presence Of Subnets, 137
9.11. The Subnet Forwarding Algorithm, 138
9.12. A Unified Forwarding Algorithm, 139
9.13. Maintenance Of Subnet Masks, 140
9.14. Broadcasting To Subnets, 140
9.15. Anonymous Point-To-Point Networks, 141
9.16. Classless Addressing And Supernetting, 142
9.17. CIDR Address Blocks And Bit Masks, 143
9.18. Address Blocks And CIDR Notation, 144
9.19. A Classless Addressing Example, 145
9.20. Data Structures And Algorithms For Classless Lookup, 145
9.21. Longest-Match And Mixtures Of Route Types, 148
9.22. CIDR Blocks Reserved For Private Networks, 149
9.23. Summary, 150
For Further Study, 150
Exercises, 151
10. Protocol Layering, 155
10.1. Introduction, 155
10.2. The Need For Multiple Protocols, 155
10.3. The Conceptual Layers Of Protocol Software, 156
10.4. Functionality Of The Layers, 159
10.5. X.25 And Its Relation To The ISO Model, 160
10.6. Locus Of Intelligence, 163
10.7. The Protocol Layering Principle, 163
10.8. Layering In The Presence Of Network Substructure, 166
10.9. Two Important Boundaries In The TCP/IP Model, 168
10.10. The Disadvantage Of Layering, 169
10.11. The Basic Idea Behind Multiplexing And Demultiplexing, 170
10.12. Summary, 171
For Further Study, 172
Exercises, 172
11. User Datagram Protocol (UDP), 175
11.1. Introduction, 175
11.2. Identifying The Ultimate Destination, 175
11.3. The User Datagram Protocol, 176
11.4. Format Of UDP Messages, 177
11.5. UDP Pseudo-Header, 178
11.6. UDP Encapsulation And Protocol Layering, 179
11.7. Layering And The UDP Checksum Computation, 181
11.8. UDP Multiplexing, Demultiplexing, And Ports, 181
11.9. Reserved And Available UDP Port Numbers, 182
11.10. Summary, 184
For Further Study, 184
Exercises, 184
12. Reliable Stream Transport Service (TCP), 187
12.1. Introduction, 187
12.2. The Need For Stream Delivery, 187
12.3. Properties Of The Reliable Delivery Service, 188
12.4. Providing Reliability, 189
12.5. The Idea Behind Sliding Windows, 191
12.6. The Transmission Control Protocol, 193
12.7. Ports, Connections, And Endpoints, 194
12.8. Passive And Active Opens, 196
12.9. Segments, Streams, And Sequence Numbers, 197
12.10. Variable Window Size And Flow Control, 198
12.11. TCP Segment Format, 199
12.12. Out Of Band Data, 200
12.13. TCP Options, 201
12.14. TCP Checksum Computation, 203
12.15. Acknowledgements, Retransmission, And Timeouts, 204
12.16. Accurate Measurement Of Round Trip Samples, 207
12.17. Karn’s Algorithm And Timer Backoff, 208
12.18. Responding To High Variance In Delay, 209
12.19. Response To Congestion, 211
12.20. Fast Recovery And Other Modifications, 213
12.21. Explicit Feedback Mechanisms (SACK and ECN), 215
12.22. Congestion, Tail Drop, And TCP, 216
12.23. Random Early Detection (RED), 217
12.24. Establishing A TCP Connection, 219
12.25. Initial Sequence Numbers, 220
12.26. Closing a TCP Connection, 221
12.27. TCP Connection Reset, 222
12.28. TCP State Machine, 222
12.29. Forcing Data Delivery, 224
12.30. Reserved TCP Port Numbers, 224
12.31. TCP Performance, 225
12.32. Silly Window Syndrome And Small Packets, 226
12.33. Avoiding Silly Window Syndrome, 227
12.34. Summary, 230
For Further Study, 231
Exercises, 231
13. Routing Architecture: Cores, Peers, And Algorithms, 235
13.1. Introduction, 235
13.2. The Origin Of Routing Tables, 236
13.3. Forwarding With Partial Information, 237
13.4. Original Internet Architecture And Cores, 238
13.5. Beyond The Core Architecture To Peer Backbones, 240
13.6. Automatic Route Propagation, 241
13.7. Distance Vector (Bellman-Ford) Routing, 241
13.8. Reliability And Routing Protocols, 243
13.9. Link-State (SPF) Routing, 243
13.10. Summary, 244
For Further Study, 245
Exercises, 245
14. Routing Between Peers (BGP), 249
14.1. Introduction, 249
14.2. Routing Update Protocol Scope, 249
14.3. Determining A Practical Limit On Group Size, 250
14.4. A Fundamental Idea: Extra Hops, 251
14.5. Autonomous System Concept, 253
14.6. Exterior Gateway Protocols And Reachability, 254
14.7. BGP Characteristics, 255
14.8. BGP Functionality And Message Types, 256
14.9. BGP Message Header, 256
14.10. BGP OPEN Message, 257
14.11. BGP UPDATE Message, 259
14.12. Compressed Mask-Address Pairs, 259
14.13. BGP Path Attributes, 260
14.14. BGP KEEPALIVE Message, 262
14.15. Information From The Receiver’s Perspective, 262
14.16. The Key Restriction Of Exterior Gateway Protocols, 263
14.17. The Internet Routing Architecture, 265
14.18. BGP NOTIFICATION Message, 266
14.19. Summary, 267
For Further Study, 268
Exercises, 268
15. Routing Within An Autonomous System (RIP, OSPF), 271
15.1. Introduction, 271
15.2. Static Vs. Dynamic Interior Routes, 271
15.3. Routing Information Protocol (RIP), 274
15.4. Slow Convergence Problem, 276
15.5. Solving The Slow Convergence Problem, 277
15.6. RIP1 Message Format, 278
15.7. RIP2 Address Conventions, 280
15.8. RIP Route Interpretation And Aggregation, 280
15.9. RIP2 Extensions And Message Format, 281
15.10. The Disadvantage Of RIP Hop Counts, 282
15.11. Delay Metric (HELLO), 283
15.12. Delay Metrics And Oscillation, 283
15.13. Combining RIP, Hello, And BGP, 285
15.14. Gated: Inter-Autonomous System Communication, 286
15.15. The Open SPF Protocol (OSPF), 286
15.16. Routing With Partial Information, 293
15.17. Summary, 293
For Further Study, 294
Exercises, 294
16. Internet Multicasting, 297
16.1. Introduction, 297
16.2. Hardware Broadcast, 297
16.3. Hardware Origins Of Multicast, 298
16.4. Ethernet Multicast, 299
16.5. IP Multicast, 299
16.6. The Conceptual Pieces, 300
16.7. IP Multicast Addresses, 301
16.8. Multicast Address Semantics, 302
16.9. Mapping IP Multicast To Ethernet Multicast, 303
16.10. Hosts And Multicast Delivery, 303
16.11. Multicast Scope, 304
16.12. Extending Host Software To Handle Multicasting, 305
16.13. Internet Group Management Protocol, 305
16.14. IGMP Implementation, 306
16.15. Group Membership State Transitions, 308
16.16. IGMP Membership Query Message Format, 309
16.17. IGMP Membership Report Message Format, 310
16.18. Multicast Forwarding And Routing Information, 312
16.19. Basic Multicast Forwarding Paradigms, 313
16.20. Consequences Of TRPF, 315
16.21. Multicast Trees, 317
16.22. The Essence Of Multicast Route Propagation, 318
16.23. Reverse Path Multicasting, 318
16.24. Multicast Routing Protocols, 319
16.25. Reliable Multicast And ACK Implosions, 322
16.26. Summary, 323
For Further Study, 324
Exercises, 324
17. IP Switching And MPLS, 327
17.1. Introduction, 327
17.2. Switching Technology, 327
17.3. Large Networks, Label Swapping, And Paths, 328
17.4. Using Switching With IP, 329
17.5. IP Switching Technologies And MPLS, 330
17.6. Classification, Flows, And Higher Layer Switching, 331
17.7. Hierarchical Use Of MPLS, 331
17.8. MPLS Encapsulation, 332
17.9. Label Switching Router, 333
17.10. Control Processing And Label Distribution, 334
17.11. MPLS And Fragmentation, 334
17.12. Mesh Topology And Traffic Engineering, 335
17.13. Summary, 336
For Further Study, 336
Exercises, 336
18. Mobile IP, 339
18.1. Introduction, 339
18.2. Mobility, Routing, and Addressing, 339
18.3. Mobile IP Characteristics, 340
18.4. Overview Of Mobile IP Operation, 340
18.5. Mobile Addressing Details, 341
18.6. Foreign Agent Discovery, 341
18.7. Agent Registration, 342
18.8. Registration Message Format, 343
18.9. Communication With A Foreign Agent, 344
18.10. Datagram Transmission And Reception, 344
18.11. The Two-Crossing Problem, 345
18.12. Communication With Computers On the Home Network, 346
18.13. Summary, 346
For Further Study, 347
Exercises, 347
19. Private Network Interconnection (NAT, VPN), 349
19.1. Introduction, 349
19.2. Private And Hybrid Networks, 349
19.3. VPN Addressing And Routing, 351
19.4. Extending VPN Technology To Individual Hosts, 352
19.5. A VPN With Private Addresses, 352
19.6. Network Address Translation (NAT), 353
19.7. NAT Translation Table Creation, 354
19.8. Multi-Address NAT, 355
19.9. Port-Mapped NAT, 356
19.10. Interaction Between NAT And ICMP, 357
19.11. Interaction Between NAT And Applications, 358
19.12. NAT In The Presence Of Fragmentation, 358
19.13. Conceptual Address Domains, 359
19.14. Slirp And Iptables, 359
19.15. Summary, 360
For Further Study, 360
Exercises, 361
20. Client-Server Model Of Interaction, 363
20.1. Introduction, 363
20.2. The Client-Server Model, 363
20.3. A Simple Example: UDP Echo Server, 364
20.4. Time And Date Service, 366
20.5. The Complexity of Servers, 366
20.6. Broadcasting A Request, 368
20.7. Alternatives To The Client-Server Model, 368
20.8. Summary, 369
For Further Study, 369
Exercises, 370
21. The Socket Interface, 373
21.1. Introduction, 373
21.2. The UNIX I/O Paradigm And Network I/O, 373
21.3. Adding Network I/O to UNIX, 374
21.4. The Socket Abstraction, 375
21.5. Creating A Socket, 375
21.6. Socket Inheritance And Termination, 375
21.7. Specifying A Local Address, 376
21.8. Connecting Sockets To Destination Addresses, 377
21.9. Sending Data Through A Socket, 378
21.10. Receiving Data Through A Socket, 380
21.11. Obtaining Local And Remote Socket Addresses, 381
21.12. Obtaining And Setting Socket Options, 382
21.13. Specifying A Queue Length For A Server, 383
21.14. How A Server Accepts Connections, 383
21.15. Servers That Handle Multiple Services, 384
21.16. Obtaining And Setting Host Names, 385
21.17. Obtaining And Setting The Internal Host Domain, 386
21.18. Socket Library Calls, 386
21.19. Network Byte Order Conversion Routines, 387
21.20. IP Address Manipulation Routines, 389
21.21. Accessing The Domain Name System, 390
21.22. Obtaining Information About Hosts, 391
21.23. Obtaining Information About Networks, 392
21.24. Obtaining Information About Protocols, 393
21.25. Obtaining Information About Network Services, 393
21.26. An Example Client, 394
21.27. An Example Server, 396
21.28. Summary, 399
For Further Study, 400
Exercises, 400
22. Bootstrap And Autoconfiguration (DHCP), 403
22.1. Introduction, 403
22.2. History Of Bootstrapping, 403
22.3. Using IP To Determine An IP Address, 404
22.4. The DHCP Retransmission Policy, 405
22.5. The DHCP Message Format, 405
22.6. The Need For Dynamic Configuration, 408
22.7. DHCP Lease Concept, 409
22.8. Multiple Addresses And Relays, 409
22.9. Address Acquisition States, 410
22.10. Early Lease Termination, 411
22.11. Lease Renewal States, 412
22.12. DHCP Options And Message Type, 413
22.13. Option Overload, 414
22.14. DHCP And Domain Names, 414
22.15. Summary, 414
For Further Study, 415
Exercises, 415
23. The Domain Name System (DNS), 419
23.1. Introduction, 419
23.2. Names For Machines, 420
23.3. Flat Namespace, 420
23.4. Hierarchical Names, 421
23.5. Delegation Of Authority For Names, 422
23.6. Subset Authority, 422
23.7. Internet Domain Names, 423
23.8. Top-Level Domains, 424
23.9. Name Syntax And Type, 426
23.10. Mapping Domain Names To Addresses, 427
23.11. Domain Name Resolution, 429
23.12. Efficient Translation, 430
23.13. Caching: The Key To Efficiency, 431
23.14. Domain Name System Message Format, 431
23.15. Compressed Name Format, 435
23.16. Abbreviation Of Domain Names, 435
23.17. Inverse Mappings, 436
23.18. Pointer Queries, 437
23.19. Object Types And Resource Record Contents, 437
23.20. Obtaining Authority For A Subdomain, 439
23.21. Dynamic DNS Update And Notification, 439
23.22. DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC), 440
23.23. Summary, 441
For Further Study, 441
Exercises, 442
24. Remote Login And Desktop (TELNET, SSH), 445
24.1. Introduction, 445
24.2. Remote Interactive Computing, 445
24.3. TELNET Protocol, 446
24.4. Accommodating Heterogeneity, 448
24.5. Passing Commands That Control The Remote Side, 449
24.6. Forcing The Server To Read A Control Function, 450
24.7. TELNET Options, 452
24.8. TELNET Option Negotiation, 452
24.9. Secure Shell (SSH), 453
24.10. Other Remote Access Technologies, 455
24.11. Summary, 455
For Further Study, 456
Exercises, 457
25. File Transfer And Access (FTP, TFTP, NFS), 459
25.1. Introduction, 459
25.2. Remote File Access, Transfer, And Storage Networks, 459
25.3. On-line Shared Access, 460
25.4. Sharing By File Transfer, 461
25.5. FTP: The Major TCP/IP File Transfer Protocol, 461
25.6. FTP Features, 461
25.7. FTP Process Model, 462
25.8. TCP Port Numbers And Data Connections, 463
25.9. The User’s View Of FTP, 464
25.10. Anonymous FTP, 464
25.11. Secure File Transfer (SSL-FTP, Scp, Sftp), 464
25.12. TFTP, 465
25.13. NFS, 467
25.14. Implementation Of NFS (RPC And XDR), 468
25.15. Summary, 469
For Further Study, 469
Exercises, 469
26. Electronic Mail (SMTP, POP, IMAP, MIME), 473
26.1. Introduction, 473
26.2. Electronic Mail, 473
26.3. Mailbox Names And Aliases, 474
26.4. Alias Expansion And Mail Forwarding, 475
26.5. TCP/IP Standards For Electronic Mail Service, 476
26.6. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), 477
26.7. Mail Retrieval And Mailbox Manipulation Protocols, 479
26.8. The MIME Extensions For Non-ASCII Data, 480
26.9. MIME Multipart Messages, 482
26.10. Summary, 483
For Further Study, 483
Exercises, 484
27. World Wide Web (HTTP), 487
27.1. Introduction, 487
27.2. Importance Of The Web, 487
27.3. Architectural Components, 488
27.4. Uniform Resource Locators, 488
27.5. An Example Document, 489
27.6. Hypertext Transfer Protocol, 490
27.7. HTTP GET Request, 490
27.8. Error Messages, 491
27.9. Persistent Connections And Lengths, 492
27.10. Data Length And Program Output, 492
27.11. Length Encoding And Headers, 493
27.12. Negotiation, 494
27.13. Conditional Requests, 495
27.14. Proxy Servers And Caching, 495
27.15. Caching, 496
27.16. Other HTTP Functionality, 497
27.17. HTTP, Security, And E-Commerce, 497
27.18. Summary, 498
For Further Study, 498
Exercises, 498
28. Voice And Video Over IP (RTP, RSVP, QoS), 501
28.1. Introduction, 501
28.2. Digitizing And Encoding, 501
28.3. Audio And Video Transmission And Reproduction, 502
28.4. Jitter And Playback Delay, 503
28.5. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP), 504
28.6. Streams, Mixing, And Multicasting, 505
28.7. RTP Encapsulation, 506
28.8. RTP Control Protocol (RTCP), 506
28.9. RTCP Operation, 506
28.10. IP Telephony And Signaling, 508
28.11. Quality Of Service Controversy, 510
28.12. QoS, Utilization, And Capacity, 511
28.13. IntServ Resource Reservation (RSVP), 511
28.14. IntServ Enforcement (COPS), 512
28.15. DiffServ And Per-Hop Behavior, 513
28.16. Traffic Scheduling, 513
28.17. Traffic Policing, 515
28.18. Summary, 515
For Further Study, 516
Exercises, 516
29. Network Management (SNMP), 519
29.1. Introduction, 519
29.2. The Level Of Management Protocols, 519
29.3. Architectural Model, 520
29.4. Protocol Framework, 522
29.5. Examples of MIB Variables, 523
29.6. The Structure Of Management Information, 524
29.7. Formal Definitions Using ASN.1, 525
29.8. Structure And Representation Of MIB Object Names, 525
29.9. Simple Network Management Protocol, 530
29.10. SNMP Message Format, 532
29.11. An Example Encoded SNMP Message, 535
29.12. New Features In SNMPv3, 538
29.13. Summary, 538
For Further Study, 539
Exercises, 539
30. Internet Security And Firewall Design (IPsec, SSL), 543
30.1. Introduction, 543
30.2. Protecting Resources, 544
30.3. Information Policy, 545
30.4. Internet Security, 545
30.5. IP Security (IPsec), 546
30.6. IPsec Authentication Header, 546
30.7. Security Association, 547
30.8. IPsec Encapsulating Security Payload, 548
30.9. Authentication And Mutable Header Fields, 549
30.10. IPsec Tunneling, 550
30.11. Required Security Algorithms, 550
30.12. Secure Sockets (SSL and TLS), 551
30.13. Firewalls And Internet Access, 551
30.14. Multiple Connections And Weakest Links, 552
30.15. Firewall Implementation And Packet Filters, 552
30.16. Security And Packet Filter Specification, 553
30.17. The Consequence Of Restricted Access For Clients, 554
30.18. Stateful Firewalls, 554
30.19. Content Protection And Proxies, 555
30.20. Monitoring And Logging, 556
30.21. Summary, 556
For Further Study, 557
Exercises, 557
31. A Next Generation IP (IPv6), 561
31.1. Introduction, 561
31.2. Why Change?, 561
31.3. Beyond IPv4, 562
31.4. The Road To A New Version Of IP, 562
31.5. The Name Of The Next IP, 562
31.6. Features Of IPv6, 563
31.7. General Form Of An IPv6 Datagram, 564
31.8. IPv6 Base Header Format, 564
31.9. IPv6 Extension Headers, 566
31.10. Parsing An IPv6 Datagram, 566
31.11. IPv6 Fragmentation And Reassembly, 567
31.12. The Consequence Of End-To-End Fragmentation, 568
31.13. IPv6 Source Routing, 569
31.14. IPv6 Options, 569
31.15. Size Of The IPv6 Address Space, 571
31.16. IPv6 Colon Hexadecimal Notation, 571
31.18. The Duality Of Broadcast And Multicast, 573
31.19. An Engineering Choice And Simulated Broadcast, 573
31.20. Proposed IPv6 Address Space Assignment, 574
31.21. Embedded IPv4 Addresses And Transition, 574
31.22. Unspecified And Loopback Addresses, 576
31.23. Unicast Address Structure, 577
31.24. Interface Identifiers, 577
31.25. Local Addresses, 578
31.26. Autoconfiguration And Renumbering, 578
31.27. Summary, 579
For Further Study, 580
Exercises, 580
1. A Look At RFCs, 582
Introduction, 582
Importance Of Host And Gateway Requirements Documents, 583
RFC Numerology, 584
Browsing Through RFCs, 584
How To Obtain An RFC Over The Internet, 585
2. Glossary Of Internetworking Terms And Abbreviations, 586
TCP/IP Terminology, 586
A Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations In Alphabetical Order, 587
Bibliography, 624
Index, I-1-1

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