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Copyright, ii
Preface, ix
1. What is Philosophy?, 1
1. The Activity of Philosophy, 3
Rational Reflection: Thinking Hard, 4
The Normative Function of Philosophy, 5
The Subject Matter of Philosophy, 6
Constructive or Analytical?, 8
Questions for Discussion, 10
2. Philosophy and Popular Culture, 11
Questions for Discussion, 24
3. Philosophy’s History, 25
Early Greek Philosophy, 26
Philosophy in the Middle Ages, 29
Modern Philosophy, 29
Twentieth-Century Philosophy, 30
The Future of Philosophy, 31
Questions for Discussion, 31
4. Philosophy and the Examined Life, 33
The Apology of Socrates, 34
Questions for Discussion, 40
Recent Developments in Philosophy, 41
Endnotes, 44
Suggestions for Further Reading, 44
2. Thinking About Thinking (Logic), 45
5. The Life of Reason, 47
The Appeal to Reason, 47
Reason and Philosophy, 49
The Advantages of Reason, 50
Questions for Discussion, 53
6. Argument Forms, 54
Thinking About Thinking, 54
Some Basic Terms, 55
Truth and Validity, 56
Argument Forms, 58
Four Standard Argument Forms, 60
Modus Ponens, 60
Modus Tollens, 62
Hypothetical Syllogism, 63
Disjunctive Syllogism, 63
Summary of Valid Argument Forms, 64
Questions for Discussion, 67
7. Induction and the Philosophy of Science, 68
Induction and Scientific Reasoning, 70
Informal Reasoning, 72
Other Inductive Arguments, 72
Causal Arguments, 74
Philosophy of Science, 76
Questions for Discussion, 78
8. Strategies for Philosophical Arguments, 80
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions, 83
Indirect Proofs, 84
Dialectical Reasoning, 85
The Dilemma, 87
Definitions, 88
Philosophical Analysis, 90
The Discovery of Fallacies, 91
Argumentum ad Baculum, 91
Ad Hominem Attack, 92
Argument from Ignorance, 92
Appeal to Pity, 92
Appeal to Authority, 92
Hasty Generalization, 93
Argumentum ad Populum, 93
Begging the Question, 93
Complex Question, 93
Equivocation, 93
Red Herring, 94
Straw Man, 94
Questions for Discussion, 94
Recent Developments in Logic, 98
Suggestions for Further Reading, 100
3. What is Real? (Metaphysics), 101
9. Introduction to Metaphysics, 103
Appearance and Reality, 103
Criteria for Reality, 104
The Mind and Reality, 106
The Tasks of Metaphysics, 109
Metaphysics and Everyday Experience, 110
The Values of Metaphysics, 112
Questions for Discussion, 113
10. Materialism, 114
Materialism and Idealism, 114
Materialism and Science, 116
Dualism and the Mind-Body Problem, 116
Materialism and Religious Belief, 118
Ancient Materialism: Atomism, 119
Materialism and Freedom, 120
Materialism and Mental Phenomena, 121
Materialism and the New Science, 128
Reconciling Materialism and Religion, 130
Questions for Discussion, 131
11. Idealism, 132
Berkeley’s Subjective Idealism, 132
Additional Problems in Berkeley’s View, 134
Questions for Discussion, 144
12. The Mind-Body Problem, 145
Metaphysical Dualism, 145
The Problem of Interaction, 147
The Identity Thesis, 147
A Counter-Argument for the Identity Thesis, 153
A Defense of Dualism, 154
The Importance at the Debate, 155
Questions for Discussion, 156
13. Metaphysics and Language, 157
Questions for Discussion, 162
Recent Developments in Metaphysics, 163
Suggestions for Further Reading, 165
4. How Do We Know? (Epistemology), 167
14. Introduction to Epistemology, 169
Knowledge, Opinion, and Belief, 169
Knowledge and Certainty, 170
Epistemology and Psychology, 171
Sources of Knowledge, 173
Questions for Discussion, 174
15. Appearance and Reality, 176
Plato’s Theory of Knowledge, 176
Degrees of Knowing, 177
The Great Chain of Being, 178
Knowledge Is Knowledge of Forms, 186
The Allegory of the Cave, 187
The Form of the Good, 189
Questions for Discussion, 189
16. The Quest for Certainty, 190
Search for a Method, 190
Grounds for Doubt, 192
Cogito Ergo Sum, 195
The Role of the Senses, 198
Questions for Discussion, 202
17. Trust Your Senses, 203
Search for Simplicity, 203
Cause and Effect, 205
Questions for Discussion, 210
18. A Compromise, 211
Knowledge and Experience, 213
A Priori and A Posteriori Knowledge, 214
Analytic and Synthetic Judgments, 215
Kant and Philosophy Today, 216
Questions for Discussion, 221
Recent Developments in Epistemology, 221
Postmodernism’s Challenges, 222
A Search for Common Ground, 224
Other Epistemological Views, 225
Suggestions for Further Reading, 226
5. What Ought We to Do? (Ethics), 227
19. Introduction to Ethical Reasoning, 229
Theory and Normative Ethics, 229
Human and Functional Goodness, 231
Teleological and Deontological Views, 232
Questions for Discussion, 235
20. The Need for Morality, 236
Morality and Might, 236
Nietzsche’s New Morality, 238
Morality and Self-Interest, 240
Questions for Discussion, 251
21. The Morality of Self-Realization, 252
Morality and Happiness, 252
Morality and Human Nature, 253
Morality and Rationality, 254
Intellectual and Moral Virtues, 255
The Social Dimensions of Morality, 256
Happiness and Pleasure, 258
Questions for Discussion, 264
22. Morality Depends on the Consequences, 265
John Stuart Mill and Ideal Utilitarianism, 266
The Introduction of Qualitative Distinctions, 268
Rule and Act Utilitarianism, 269
Further Difficulties of Utilitarianism, 269
Questions for Discussion, 276
23. Morality Depends on Motives, 277
The Good Will, 278
Acting from Duty, 278
Hypothetical and Categorical Imperatives, 279
Questions for Discussion, 284
Recent Developments in Ethics, 285
Applied Ethics, 285
The Revival of Virtue Ethics, 285
Feminist Ethics of Care, 287
Ethical Obligations to Animals, 289
Suggestions for Further Reading, 290
6. Philosophy of Religion, 291
24. Introduction to Philosophy of Religion, 293
Philosophical Issues in Religion, 294
Some Attempts at Definition, 296
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Criteria, 297
Questions for Discussion, 298
25. Religion and Life’s Meaning, 299
The Absurdist Response, 300
Tolstoy’s Response, 300
Questions for Discussion, 307
26. Arguments for God’s Existence: The Ontological Argument, 308
Reason and Religion, 309
The Ontological Argument, 309
The Ontological Argument In Recent Thought, 312
Existence Is Not a Quality, 314
The Ontological Argument’s Ongoing Relevance, 316
Contingent and Necessary Existence, 317
Questions for Discussion, 318
27. Arguments for God’s Existence: The Cosmological Arguments, 319
Nature: A Cosmos, Not a Chaos, 319
The Disputed Question, 321
First Argument From Change, 324
The Argument from Causality, 325
The Argument from Possibility and Necessity, 327
The Argument from Gradations of Being, 328
The Argument from Design, 329
Questions for Discussion, 339
28. The Problem of Evil, 340
The Free Will Defense, 341
A Limited God?, 341
Questions for Discussion, 347
Recent Developments in Philosophy of Religion, 347
Arguments Against God’s Existence, 347
Arguments for God’s Existence, 349
Feminist Theology, 349
The Globalization of Religious Studies, 351
Suggestions for Further Reading, 352
7. Philosophy of Art (Esthetics), 353
29. Introduction to the Philosophy of Art, 355
The Problem of Artistic Expression, 356
The Role of Esthetic Experience, 357
Questions for Discussion, 363
30. The Value of Art, 364
Questions for Discussion, 372
31. Art as Ideal, 373
Questions for Discussion, 383
32. Esthetics and Ideology, 384
Questions For Discussion, 394
Recent Developments in Esthetics, 395
Modernism in Art, 395
Postmodernism, 396
The Political Implications of Art, 397
Suggestions for Further Reading, 398
8. Social and Political Philosophy, 399
33. Introduction to Social and Political Philosophy, 401
Introduction to Social Philosophy, 401
Equality and Human Rights, 403
What Is Justice?, 405
The Contemporary Reality, 406
Questions for Discussion, 408
34. The Liberal, Secular State, 409
Questions for Discussion, 420
35. The Individual and the State, 421
Questions for Discussion, 429
36. Individual Happiness and Social Responsibility, 430
Questions for Discussion, 439
37. Minority Group Rights, 440
Questions for Discussion, 449
Recent Developments in Social and Political Philosophy, 449
Emergence of Global Issues, 450
A New Social Contract, 451
Suggestions for Further Reading, 452
9. Eastern Thought, 453
38. Philosophy East and West, 455
Multiple Meanings of Philosophy, 456
Thought Systems and Action, 457
Questions for Discussion, 458
39. Chinese Theories of Human Nature, 459
Human Nature and Nurture, 459
Ought Implies Can, 460
Strong and Weak Claims, 461
Three Confucian Theories of Human Nature, 461
Mencius on Human Nature, 463
Xun Zi on Human Nature, 463
Dong Zhongshu on Human Nature, 464
The Role of Government, 465
Taoist Theories of Human Nature, 475
Questions for Discussion, 476
40. Indian Theories of Human Nature, 477
Questions for Discussion, 488
Recent Developments in Eastern Philosophy, 488
Searching for a Definition, 489
Tough- and Tender-Minded Approaches, 490
Philosophy and Religion, 491
Philosophy of Religion, 492
Suggestions for Further Reading, 493
Glossary of Terms, 494
Single PC License Agreement and Limited Warranty, 515
Index, I-1-1

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