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Anthropology, Twelfth Edition

by Carol R. Ember - Human Relations Area Files; Melvin Ember - Human Relations Area Files; Peter N. Peregrine - Lawrence University

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Copyright, ii
Boxes, viii
Preface, xi
Acknowledgments, xviii
About the Authors, xx
I. Introduction, 1
1. What Is Anthropology?, 2
The Scope of Anthropology, 3
The Holistic Approach, 4
The Anthropological Curiosity, 4
Fields of Anthropology, 4
Specialization, 9
The Relevance of Anthropology, 11
Summary, 13
Glossary Terms, 14
Critical Questions, 14
Research Navigator, 14
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 15
2. How We Discover the Past, 16
The Evidence of the Past, 17
Finding the Evidence, 19
Analyzing the Evidence, 21
Dating the Evidence, 27
The Results of Archaeological Research, 31
Ethics in Archaeological Research, 31
Summary, 33
Glossary Terms, 33
Critical Questions, 33
Research Navigator, 33
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 33
II. Human Evolution: Biological and Cultural, 34
3. Genetics and Evolution, 34
The Evolution of Evolution, 35
The Principles of Natural Selection, 39
Heredity, 41
Sources of Variability, 45
The Origin of Species, 49
Natural Selection of Behavioral Traits, 50
Summary, 52
Glossary Terms, 52
Critical Questions, 52
Research Navigator, 52
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 53
4. The Living Primates, 54
Common Primate Traits, 55
Classification of Primates, 58
The Various Primates, 59
Distinctive Hominid Traits, 67
Primate Adaptations, 70
Summary, 72
Glossary Terms, 72
Critical Questions, 72
Research Navigator, 73
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 73
5. Primate Evolution: From Early Primates to Hominoids, 74
The Emergence of Primates, 76
The Emergence of Anthropoids, 82
The Miocene Anthropoids: Monkeys, Apes, and Hominids (?), 83
The Divergence of Hominids from the Other Hominoids, 87
Summary, 88
Glossary Terms, 89
Critical Questions, 89
Research Navigator, 89
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 89
6. The First Hominids, 90
The Evolution of Bipedal Locomotion, 91
The Transition from Hominoids to Hominids, 95
Australopithecus: The First Definite Hominid, 95
One Model of Human Evolution, 104
Summary, 105
Glossary Terms, 105
Critical Questions, 105
Research Navigator, 105
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 105
7. The Origins of Culture and The Emergence of Homo, 106
Early Hominid Tools, 107
Early Hominid Lifestyles, 109
Trends in Hominid Evolution, 113
Early Homo, 115
Homo erectus, 116
Lower Paleolithic Cultures, 121
Summary, 124
Glossary Terms, 124
Critical Questions, 124
Research Navigator, 125
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 125
III. Modern Humans, 126
8. The Emergence of Homo Sapiens, 126
The Transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens, 127
Middle Paleolithic Cultures, 134
The Emergence of Modern Humans, 137
What Happened to the Neandertals?, 139
Summary, 140
Glossary Terms, 140
Critical Questions, 140
Research Navigator, 140
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 141
9. The Upper Paleolithic World, 142
The Last Ice Age, 143
Upper Paleolithic Europe, 144
Upper Paleolithic Cultures in Africa and Asia, 150
The Earliest Humans and Their Cultures in the New World, 150
The End of the Upper Paleolithic, 154
Summary, 156
Glossary Terms, 156
Critical Questions, 156
Research Navigator, 156
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 157
10. Origins of Food Production and Settled Life, 158
Preagricultural Developments, 160
The Domestication of Plants and Animals, 166
Why Did Food Production Develop?, 174
Consequences of the Rise of Food Production, 175
Summary, 178
Glossary Terms, 179
Critical Questions, 179
Research Navigator, 179
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 179
11. Origins of Cities and States, 180
Archaeological Inferences about Civilization, 182
Cities and States in Southern Iraq, 183
Cities and States in Mesoamerica, 185
The First Cities and States in Other Areas, 187
Theories about the Origin of the State, 189
The Consequences of State Formation, 191
The Decline and Collapse of States, 193
Summary, 194
Glossary Terms, 195
Critical Questions, 195
Research Navigator, 195
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 195
12. Human Variation and Adaptation, 196
Processes in Human Variation and Adaptation, 197
Physical Variation in Human Populations, 199
Race and Racism, 208
The Future of Human Variation, 212
Summary, 212
Glossary Terms, 213
Critical Questions, 213
Research Navigator, 213
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 213
IV. Cultural Variation, 214
13. The Concept of Culture, 214
Defining Features of Culture, 215
Attitudes That Hinder the Study of Cultures, 217
Cultural Relativism, 220
Describing a Culture, 220
Some Assumptions about Culture, 224
Summary, 228
Glossary Terms, 228
Critical Questions, 228
Research Navigator, 229
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 229
14. Theoretical Approaches in Cultural Anthropology, 230
History of Theoretical Orientations, 232
The Hypothesis-Testing Orientation, 243
Summary, 243
Glossary Terms, 244
Critical Questions, 244
Research Navigator, 244
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 245
15. Explanation and Evidence, 246
Explanations, 247
Why Theories Cannot Be Proved, 248
Generating Theories, 250
Evidence: Testing Explanations, 250
Types of Research in Cultural Anthropology, 254
Summary, 259
Glossary Terms, 259
Critical Questions, 259
Research Navigator, 259
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 259
16. Communication and Language, 260
Communication, 261
The Origins of Language, 265
Descriptive Linguistics, 266
Historical Linguistics, 270
The Processes of Linguistic Divergence, 272
Relationships between Language and Culture, 273
The Ethnography of Speaking, 276
Writing and Literacy, 280
Summary, 280
Glossary Terms, 281
Critical Questions, 281
Research Navigator, 281
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 281
17. Getting Food, 282
Food Collection, 284
Food Production, 286
Environmental Restraints on Food-Getting, 293
The Origin of Food Production, 295
The Spread and Intensification of Food Production, 297
Summary, 298
Glossary Terms, 298
Critical Questions, 298
Research Navigator, 299
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 299
18. Economic Systems, 300
The Allocation of Resources, 301
The Conversion of Resources, 307
The Distribution of Goods and Services, 312
Summary, 320
Glossary Terms, 321
Critical Questions, 321
Research Navigator, 321
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 321
19. Social Stratification: Class, Ethnicity, and Racism, 322
Variation in Degree of Social Inequality, 324
Egalitarian Societies, 325
Rank Societies, 326
Class Societies, 327
Racism and Inequality, 333
Ethnicity and Inequality, 335
The Emergence of Stratification, 337
Summary, 338
Glossary Terms, 339
Critical Questions, 339
Research Navigator, 339
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 339
20. Sex, Gender, and Culture, 340
Gender Concepts, 342
Physique and Physiology, 342
Gender Roles, 343
Relative Contributions to Work, 345
Political Leadership and Warfare, 347
The Relative Status of Women, 349
Personality Differences, 351
Sexuality, 353
Summary, 356
Glossary Terms, 357
Critical Questions, 357
Research Navigator, 357
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 357
21. Marriage and the Family, 358
Marriage, 359
Why Is Marriage Universal?, 360
How Does One Marry?, 362
Restrictions on Marriage: The Universal Incest Taboo, 365
Whom Should One Marry?, 368
How Many Does One Marry?, 371
The Family, 374
Summary, 378
Glossary Terms, 378
Critical Questions, 378
Research Navigator, 378
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 379
22. Marital Residence and Kinship, 380
Patterns of Marital Residence, 381
The Structure of Kinship, 383
Variation in Unilineal Descent Systems, 387
Functions of Unilineal Descent Groups, 389
Ambilineal Systems, 393
Explaining Variation in Residence, 393
The Emergence of Unilineal Systems, 396
Explaining Ambilineal and Bilateral Systems, 396
Kinship Terminology, 397
Summary, 400
Glossary Terms, 400
Critical Questions, 401
Research Navigator, 401
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 401
23. Associations and Interest Groups, 402
Nonvoluntary Associations, 404
Voluntary Associations, 410
Explaining Variation in Associations, 416
Summary, 417
Glossary Terms, 417
Critical Questions, 417
Research Navigator, 417
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 417
24. Political Life: Social Order and Disorder, 418
Variation in Types of Political Organization, 420
The Spread of State Societies, 428
Variation in Political Process, 429
Resolution of Conflict, 430
Summary, 438
Glossary Terms, 438
Critical Questions, 439
Research Navigator, 439
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 439
25. Psychology and Culture, 440
The Universality of Psychological Development, 442
Cross-Cultural Variation in Psychological Characteristics, 444
Psychological Explanations of Cultural Variation, 456
Summary, 458
Glossary Terms, 458
Critical Questions, 458
Research Navigator, 458
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 459
26. Religion and Magic, 460
The Universality of Religion, 462
Variation in Religious Beliefs, 463
Variation in Religious Practices, 467
Religion and Adaptation, 472
Summary, 474
Glossary Terms, 475
Critical Questions, 475
Research Navigator, 475
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 475
27. The Arts, 476
Body Decoration and Adornment, 478
Explaining Variation in the Arts, 479
Viewing the Art of Other Cultures, 489
Artistic Change and Culture Contact, 489
Summary, 490
Glossary Terms, 491
Critical Questions, 491
Research Navigator, 491
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 491
28. Culture Change and Globalization, 492
How and Why Cultures Change, 493
Culture Change and Adaptation, 500
Types of Culture Change in the Modern World, 501
Ethnogenesis: The Emergence of New Cultures, 507
Globalization: Problems and Opportunities, 510
Cultural Diversity in the Future, 511
Summary, 512
Glossary Terms, 513
Critical Questions, 513
Research Navigator, 513
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 513
V. Using Anthropology, 514
29. Applied and Practicing Anthropology, 514
Motives for Applying and Practicing Anthropology, 517
History and Types of Application, 518
Ethics of Applied Anthropology, 519
Evaluating the Effects of Planned Change, 520
Difficulties in Instituting Planned Change, 521
Cultural Resource Management, 524
Forensic Anthropology, 525
Summary, 526
Glossary Terms, 526
Critical Questions, 526
Research Navigator, 526
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 527
30. Medical Anthropology, 528
Cultural Understandings of Health and Illness, 530
Treatment of Illness, 532
Political and Economic Influences on Health, 535
Health Conditions and Diseases, 536
Summary, 542
Glossary Terms, 543
Critical Questions, 543
Research Navigator, 543
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 543
31. Global Social Problems, 544
Natural Disasters and Famine, 546
Inadequate Housing and Homelessness, 547
Family Violence and Abuse, 550
Crime, 551
War, 553
Terrorism, 556
Making the World Better, 558
Summary, 558
Glossary Term, 558
Critical Questions, 559
Research Navigator, 559
Discovering Anthropology: Researchers at Work, 559
Glossary, 559
Notes, 569
Chapter 1, 569
Chapter 2, 569
Chapter 3, 569
Chapter 4, 569
Chapter 5, 570
Chapter 6, 571
Chapter 7, 571
Chapter 8, 572
Chapter 9, 573
Chapter 10, 573
Chapter 11, 574
Chapter 12, 575
Chapter 13, 576
Chapter 14, 576
Chapter 15, 576
Chapter 16, 576
Chapter 17, 577
Chapter 18, 578
Chapter 19, 579
Chapter 20, 579
Chapter 21, 580
Chapter 22, 581
Chapter 23, 582
Chapter 24, 582
Chapter 25, 583
Chapter 26, 584
Chapter 27, 585
Chapter 28, 585
Chapter 29, 586
Chapter 30, 586
Chapter 31, 587
Bibliography, 587
Appendix, M-1
Maps, M-1
The Living Primates, M-2
The Spread of Modern Humans, M-6
The Spread of Agriculture, M-10
The First Civilizations, M-14
The Spread of Writing, M-17
European Expansion in the 16th Century, M-20
Biological Exchanges, M-23
Trading in Human Lives, M-27
Migration in the 19th Century, M-31
Trade in the 19th Century, M-34

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