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Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics, Twelfth Edition

by Charles D. Ghilani; Paul R. Wolf

Publisher: Prentice Hall

Copyright Year: 2008

Publishing Date: 2007/12/31

eText ISBN-10: 0-13-604867-6

eText ISBN-13: 978-0-13-604867-1

Print ISBN-10: 0-13-615431-X

Print ISBN-13: 978-0-13-615431-0

Course: Surveying, Civil Engineering

Pages: 960

eTextbook $81.50

(180 day subscription)

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Table of Contents | Description

Instructor Resources | Student Resources

ABOUT THIS TITLE - TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments, xxvi

1. Introduction, 1

1.1 Definition of Surveying, 1

1.2 Geomatics, 3

1.3 History of Surveying, 4

1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys, 7

1.5 Importance of Surveying, 10

1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys, 11

1.7 Surveying Safety, 12

1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems, 13

1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies, 14

1.10 The Surveying Profession, 15

1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations, 16

1.12 Surveying on the Internet, 17

1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying, 18

Bibliography, 20

2. Units, Significant Figures, and Field Notes, 23

Part I Units and Significant Figures, 23

2.1 Introduction, 23

2.2 Units of Measurement, 23

2.3 International System of Units (SI), 25

2.4 Significant Figures, 27

2.5 Rounding Off Numbers, 29

Part II Field Notes, 30

2.6 Field Notes, 30

2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes, 31

2.8 Types of Field Books, 32

2.9 Kinds of Notes, 33

2.10 Arrangements of Notes, 33

2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes, 35

2.12 Introduction to Data Collectors, 36

2.13 Transfer of Files from Data Collectors, 39

2.14 Digital Data File Management, 41

2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors, 42

Bibliography, 45

3. Theory of Errors in Observations, 47

3.1 Introduction, 47

3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations, 47

3.3 Errors in Measurements, 48

3.4 Mistakes, 48

3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations, 49

3.6 Types of Errors, 49

3.7 Precision and Accuracy, 50

3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors, 51

3.9 Probability, 51

3.10 Most Probable Value, 52

3.11 Residuals, 53

3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors, 53

3.13 General Laws of Probability, 57

3.14 Measures of Precision, 57

3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation, 60

3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors, 60

3.17 Error Propagation, 62

3.17.1 Error of a Sum, 62

3.17.2 Error of a Series, 63

3.17.3 Error in a Product, 65

3.17.4 Error in the Mean, 66

3.18 Applications, 67

3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations, 67

3.20 Weights of Observations, 68

3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment, 69

Bibliography, 72

4. Leveling—Theory, Methods, and Equipment, 73

Part I Leveling—Theory and Methods, 73

4.1 Introduction, 73

4.2 Definitions, 73

4.3 North American Vertical Datum, 75

4.4 Curvature and Refraction, 76

4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation, 78

4.5.1 Measuring Vertical Distances by Taping or Electronic Methods, 78

4.5.2 Differential Leveling, 78

4.5.3 Barometric Leveling, 80

4.5.4 Trigonometric Leveling, 81

Part II Equipment for Differential Leveling, 85

4.6 Categories of Levels, 85

4.7 Telescopes, 86

4.8 Level Vials, 87

4.9 Tilting Levels, 89

4.10 Automatic Levels, 90

4.11 Digital Levels, 91

4.12 Tripods, 93

4.13 Hand Level, 93

4.14 Level Rods, 94

4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels, 96

4.15.1 Requirements for Testing and Adjusting Instruments, 96

4.15.2 Adjusting for Parallax, 97

4.15.3 Testing and Adjusting Level Vials, 97

4.15.4 Preliminary Adjustment of the Horizontal CrossHair, 97

4.15.5 Testing and Adjusting the Line of Sight, 98

Bibliography, 101

5. Leveling—Field Procedures and Computations, 103

5.1 Introduction, 103

5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level, 103

5.3 Duties of a Rodperson, 105

5.4 Differential Leveling, 106

5.5 Precision, 110

5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits, 112

5.7 Reciprocal Leveling, 113

5.8 Three-Wire Leveling, 114

5.9 Profile Leveling, 114

5.9.1 Staking and Stationing the Reference Line, 114

5.9.2 Field Procedures for Profile Leveling, 116

5.9.3 Drawing and Using the Profile, 118

5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling, 120

5.11 Use of the Hand Level, 120

5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling, 120

5.12.1 Instrumental Errors, 120

5.12.2 Natural Errors, 121

5.12.3 Personal Errors, 122

5.13 Mistakes, 123

5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes, 123

Bibliography, 126

6. Distance Measurement, 127

Part I Methods for Measuring Distances, 127

6.1 Introduction, 127

6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements, 127

6.3 Pacing, 128

6.4 Odometer Readings, 128

6.5 Optical Rangefinders, 129

6.6 Tacheometry, 129

6.7 Subtense Bar, 129

Part II Distance Measurements by Taping, 129

6.8 Introduction to Taping, 129

6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories, 130

6.10 Care of Taping Equipment, 131

6.11 Taping on Level Ground, 132

6.11.1 Lining In, 132

6.11.2 Applying Tension, 132

6.11.3 Plumbing, 132

6.11.4 Marking Tape Lengths, 132

6.11.5 Reading the Tape, 133

6.11.6 Recording the Distance, 134

6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground, 134

6.13 Slope Measurements, 136

6.14 Sources of Error in Taping, 137

6.14.1 Incorrect Length of Tape, 137

6.14.2 Temperature Other Than Standard, 138

6.14.3 Inconsistent Pull, 139

6.14.4 Sag, 139

6.14.5 Tape Not Horizontal and Tape Off-Line, 140

6.14.6 Improper Plumbing, 140

6.14.7 Faulty Marking, 141

6.14.8 Incorrect Reading or Interpolation, 141

6.14.9 Summary of Effects of Taping Errors, 141

6.15 Tape Problems, 141

6.16 Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem, 143

Part III Electronic Distance Measurement, 145

6.17 Introduction, 145

6.18 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy, 145

6.19 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement, 148

6.20 Electro-Optical Instruments, 150

6.21 Total Station Instruments, 153

6.22 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors, 154

6.23 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances, 154

6.23.1 Reduction of Short Lines by Elevation Differences, 155

6.23.2 Reduction of Short Lines by Zenith or Altitude Angle, 156

6.24 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement, 156

6.24.1 Personal Errors, 157

6.24.2 Instrumental Errors, 158

6.24.3 Natural Errors, 160

Bibliography, 164

7. Angles, Azimuths, and Bearings, 165

7.1 Introduction, 165

7.2 Units of Angle Measurement, 165

7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles, 166

7.4 Direction of a Line, 167

7.5 Azimuths, 168

7.6 Bearings, 169

7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings, 170

7.8 Computing Azimuths, 171

7.9 Computing Bearings, 173

7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field, 175

7.11 Magnetic Declination, 176

7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination, 178

7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination, 178

7.14 Local Attraction, 180

7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems, 180

7.16 Mistakes, 182

Bibliography, 184

8. Total Station Instruments; Angle Measurements, 185

Part I Total Station Instruments, 185

8.1 Introduction, 185

8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments, 185

8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments, 188

8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument, 188

8.5 Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument, 192

8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments, 195

Part II Angle Measurements, 196

8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances, 196

8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments, 197

8.9 Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method, 199

8.10 Closing the Horizon, 201

8.11 Observing Deflection Angles, 202

8.12 Observing Azimuths, 204

8.13 Observing Vertical Angles, 204

8.14 Sights and Marks, 206

8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line, 207

8.16 Balancing-In, 209

8.17 Random Traverse, 210

8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences, 211

8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories, 212

8.19.1 Adjustment of Plate-Level Vials, 214

8.19.2 Adjustment of Tripods, 214

8.19.3 Adjustment of Tribrachs, 214

8.19.4 Adjustment of Optical Plummets, 215

8.19.5 Adjustment of Circular Level Bubbles, 215

8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work, 215

8.20.1 Instrumental Errors, 216

8.20.2 Natural Errors, 219

8.20.3 Personal Errors, 220

8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations, 221

8.22 Mistakes, 222

Bibliography, 224

9. Traversing, 225

9.1 Introduction, 225

9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions, 227

9.2.1 Traversing by Interior Angles, 227

9.2.2 Traversing by Angles to the Right, 227

9.2.3 Traversing by Deflection Angles, 227

9.2.4 Traversing by Azimuths, 228

9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths, 228

9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations, 229

9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations, 229

9.6 Traverse Field Notes, 231

9.7 Angle Misclosure, 232

9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments, 233

9.9 Radial Traversing, 234

9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing, 235

9.11 Mistakes in Traversing, 235

10. Traverse Computations, 239

10.1 Introduction, 239

10.2 Balancing Angles, 240

10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings, 242

10.4 Departures and Latitudes, 243

10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions, 244

10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision, 245

10.7 Traverse Adjustment, 246

10.7.1 Compass (Bowditch) Rule, 247

10.7.2 Least-Squares Method, 249

10.8 Rectangular Coordinates, 249

10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations, 250

10.9.1 Balancing Angles by Adjusting Azimuths or Bearings, 250

10.9.2 Balancing Departures and Latitudes by Adjusting Coordinates, 252

10.10 Lengths and Directions of Lines from Departures and Latitudes, or Coordinates, 254

10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions, 255

10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys, 257

10.13 Use of Open Traverses, 258

10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems, 261

10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers, 262

10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Measurements, 262

10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations, 264

Bibliography, 268

11. Coordinate Geometry in Surveying Calculations, 269

11.1 Introduction, 269

11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles, 270

11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line, 272

11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions, 274

11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle, 276

11.6 Intersection of Two Circles, 279

11.7 Three-Point Resection, 281

11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation, 284

11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem, 290

11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection, 291

11.11 Conclusions, 294

Bibliography, 299

12.1 Introduction, 301

12.2 Methods of Measuring Area, 301

12.3 Area by Division into Simple Figures, 302

12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines, 303

12.4.1 Regularly Spaced Offsets, 303

12.4.2 Irregularly Spaced Offsets, 304

12.5 Area by Coordinates, 305

12.6 Area by Double Meridian Distance Method, 309

12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries, 312

12.8 Partitioning of Lands, 313

12.8.1 Trial and Error Method, 313

12.8.2 Use of Simple Geometric Figures, 315

12.8.3 Coordinate Method, 316

12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps, 317

12.9.1 Area by Counting Coordinate Squares, 317

12.9.2 Area by Scaled Lengths, 318

12.9.3 Area by Digitizing Coordinates, 318

12.9.4 Area by Planimeter, 318

12.10 Sources of Error in Determining Areas, 320

12.11 Mistakes in Determining Areas, 320

Bibliography, 322

13. The Global Positioning System—Introduction and Principles of Operation, 323

13.1 Introduction, 323

13.2 Overview of GPS, 324

13.3 The GPS Signal, 326

13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems for GPS, 328

13.4.1 The Satellite Reference Coordinate System, 329

13.4.2 The Geocentric Coordinate System, 329

13.4.3 The Geodetic Coordinate System, 331

13.5 Fundamentals of GPS Positioning, 337

13.5.1 Code Ranging, 337

13.5.2 Carrier Phase-Shift Measurements, 339

13.6 Errors in GPS Observations, 339

13.6.1 Clock Bias, 340

13.6.2 Refraction, 340

13.6.3 Other Error Sources, 343

13.6.4 Geometry of Observed Satellites, 345

13.6.5 Selective Availability, 347

13.7 Differential GPS, 347

13.8 Kinematic GPS Methods, 350

13.9 Relative Positioning, 351

13.9.1 Single Differencing, 352

13.9.2 Double Differencing, 352

13.9.3 Triple Differencing, 353

13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems, 354

13.10.1 The GLONASS Constellation, 354

13.10.2 Galileo System, 355

13.10.3 Compass, 355

13.11 The Future, 356

Bibliography, 358

14. The Global Positioning System—Static Surveys, 359

14.1 Introduction, 359

14.2 Field Procedures in GPS Surveys, 360

14.2.1 Static Relative Positioning, 361

14.2.2 Rapid Static Relative Positioning, 362

14.2.3 Pseudokinematic Surveys, 363

14.2.4 Kinematic Surveys, 363

14.3 Planning GPS Surveys, 363

14.3.1 Preliminary Considerations, 364

14.3.2 Selecting the Appropriate Survey Method, 367

14.3.3 Field Reconnaissance, 369

14.3.4 Developing an Observation Scheme, 369

14.3.5 Availability of Reference Stations, 372

14.4 Performing Static GPS Surveys, 375

14.5 Data Processing and Analysis, 375

14.5.1 Specifications for GPS Surveys, 378

14.5.2 Analysis of Fixed Baseline Measurements, 379

14.5.3 Analysis of Repeat Baseline Measurements, 381

14.5.4 Analysis of Loop Closures, 381

14.5.5 Baseline Network Adjustment, 383

14.5.6 The Survey Report, 383

14.6 Sources of Errors in GPS Work, 384

14.6.1 Instrumental Errors, 384

14.6.2 Natural Errors, 385

14.6.3 Personal Errors, 385

14.7 Mistakes in GPS Work, 386

14.8 Future Outlook for GPS, 386

Bibliography, 388

15. The Global Positioning System—Kinematic GPS, 391

15.1 Introduction, 391

15.2 Initialization, 393

15.3 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys, 393

15.4 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys, 395

15.5 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys, 398

15.6 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys, 400

15.7 Real-Time Networks, 401

15.8 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys, 402

15.9 Machine Control, 404

15.10 Errors in Kinematic Surveys, 407

15.11 Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys, 407

Bibliography, 408

16. Adjustments by Least Squares, 411

16.1 Introduction, 411

16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares, 413

16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method, 414

16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment, 418

16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities, 420

16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits, 422

16.7 Propagation of Errors, 426

16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GPS Baseline Vectors, 427

16.9 Least-Squares Adjustment of Traditional Horizontal Plane Surveys, 433

16.9.1 Linearizing Nonlinear Equations, 433

16.9.2 The Distance Observation Equation, 435

16.9.3 The Azimuth Observation Equation, 437

16.9.4 The Angle Observation Equation, 438

16.9.5 A Traverse Example Using WOLFPACK, 441

16.10 Error Ellipses, 441

16.11 Adjustment Procedures, 447

16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations, 449

16.13 Conclusions, 450

Bibliography, 456

17. Mapping Surveys, 457

17.1 Introduction, 457

17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys, 458

17.3 Map Scale, 458

17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys, 460

17.5 Contours, 461

17.6 Characteristics of Contours, 464

17.7 Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours, 464

17.7.1 Direct Method, 465

17.7.2 Indirect Method, 465

17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems, 466

17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details, 469

17.9.1 Radiation by Total Station, 469

17.9.2 Radiation by Stadia, 471

17.9.3 Coordinate Squares or “Grid” Method, 475

17.9.4 Offsets from a Reference Line, 476

17.9.5 Topographic Detailing with GPS, 477

17.9.6 Laser-Scanning, 479

17.10 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation, 481

17.11 Selection of Field Method, 483

17.12 Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software, 483

17.13 Hydrographic Surveys, 486

17.13.1 Equipment for Making Soundings, 486

17.13.2 Locating Soundings, 488

17.13.3 Hydrographic Mapping, 490

17.14 Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys, 490

17.15 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys, 491

Bibliography, 493

18. Mapping, 495

18.1 Introduction, 495

18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information, 496

18.3 National Mapping Program, 497

18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping, 497

18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures, 499

18.6 Map Design, 500

18.7 Map Layout, 502

18.8 Basic Map Plotting Procedures, 504

18.8.1 Manually Plotting by Coordinates, 504

18.8.2 Plotting Using CADD, 504

18.9 Contour Interval, 506

18.10 Plotting Contours, 506

18.11 Lettering, 507

18.12 Cartographic Map Elements, 508

18.13 Drafting Materials, 511

18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems, 511

18.15 Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping, 517

18.16 Sources of Error in Mapping, 518

18.17 Mistakes in Mapping, 518

Bibliography, 520

19. Control Surveys and Geodetic Reductions, 521

19.1 Introduction, 521

19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid, 522

19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole, 524

19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature, 526

19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical, 528

19.6 U.S. Reference Frames, 530

19.6.1 North American Horizontal Datum of 1927 (NAD27), 530

19.6.2 North American Horizontal Datum of 1983 (NAD83), 530

19.6.3 Later Versions of NAD83, 531

19.6.4 National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29), 533

19.6.5 North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88), 533

19.6.6 Transforming Coordinates Between Reference Frames, 534

19.7 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys, 538

19.8 The National Spatial Reference System, 541

19.9 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network, 542

19.10 Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network, 542

19.11 Control Point Descriptions, 543

19.12 Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys, 545

9.12.1 Triangulation, 546

9.12.2 Precise Traverse, 547

9.12.3 Trilateration, 549

9.12.4 Combined Networks, 550

19.13 Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys, 550

19.14 Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values, 555

9.14.1 Reduction of Distance Observations Using Elevations, 555

9.14.2 Reduction of Distance Observations Using Vertical Angles, 558

9.14.3 Reduction of Directions and Angles, 561

9.14.4 Leveling and Orthometric Heights, 563

19.15 Geodetic Position Computations, 567

9.15.1 Direct Geodetic Problem, 567

9.15.2 Inverse Geodetic Problem, 568

19.16 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System, 570

19.17 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations, 571

19.18 Conclusions, 574

Bibliography, 577

20. State Plane Coordinates, 579

20.1 Introduction, 579

20.2 Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems, 580

20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection, 583

20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection, 584

20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83, 584

20.6 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System, 586

20.6.1 Zone Constants, 586

20.6.2 The Direct Problem, 587

20.6.3 The Inverse Problem, 589

20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System, 591

20.7.1 Zone Constants, 591

20.7.2 The Direct Problem, 592

20.7.3 The Inverse Problem, 594

20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids, 597

20.8.1 Grid Reduction of Distances, 598

20.8.2 Grid Reduction of Azimuths and Angles, 602

20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations, 607

20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another, 609

20.11 Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83, 610

20.12 The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection, 611

20.13 Other Map Projections, 612

20.13.1 Oblique Stereographic Map Projection, 612

20.13.2 Oblique Mercator Map Projection, 615

Bibliography, 618

21. Boundary Surveys, 621

21.1 Introduction, 621

21.2 Categories of Land Surveys, 622

21.3 Historical Perspectives, 623

21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds, 624

21.5 Property Description by Block and Lot System, 627

21.6 Property Description by Coordinates, 629

21.7 Retracement Surveys, 629

21.8 Subdivision Surveys, 632

21.9 Partitioning Land, 634

21.10 Registration of Title, 635

21.11 Adverse Possession and Easements, 636

21.12 Condominium Surveys, 636

21.13 Geographic and Land Information Systems, 643

21.14 Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys, 643

21.15 Mistakes, 643

Bibliography, 646

22. Surveys of the Public Lands, 647

22.1 Introduction, 647

22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands, 648

22.3 Initial Point, 652

22.4 Principal Meridian, 652

22.5 Baseline, 653

22.6 Standard Parallels (Correction Lines), 654

22.7 Guide Meridians, 654

22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines, 655

22.9 Designation of Townships, 656

22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships, 657

22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections, 658

22.12 Subdivision of Sections, 660

22.13 Fractional Sections, 660

22.14 Notes, 661

22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps, 661

22.16 Marking Corners, 661

22.17 Witness Corners, 661

22.18 Meander Corners, 663

22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners, 663

22.20 Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys, 666

22.21 Descriptions by Township Section, and Smaller Subdivision, 667

22.22 BLM Land Information System, 667

22.23 Sources of Error, 668

22.24 Mistakes, 669

Bibliography, 671

23. Construction Surveys, 673

23.1 Introduction, 673

23.2 Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys, 674

23.2.1 Visible Laser-Beam Instruments, 674

23.2.2 Reflectorless Total Stations, 676

23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control, 677

23.4 Staking Out a Pipeline, 678

23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades, 680

23.6 Staking Out a Building, 681

23.7 Staking Out Highways, 685

23.8 Other Construction Surveys, 690

23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments, 691

23.10 Construction Surveys Using GPS Equipment, 694

23.11 Machine Control, 696

23.12 As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning, 698

23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys, 699

23.14 Mistakes, 699

Bibliography, 701

24. Horizontal Curves, 703

24.1 Introduction, 703

24.2 Degree of Circular Curve, 704

24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas, 706

24.4 Circular Curve Stationing, 708

24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles, 710

24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords, 711

24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords, 713

24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords, 715

24.9 Setups on Curve, 715

24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords, 716

24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords, 718

24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve, 719

24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates, 721

24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GPS and Robotic Total Stations, 726

24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets, 727

24.16 Special Circular Curve Problems, 730

24.16.1 Passing a Circular Curve Through a Fixed Point, 730

24.16.2 Intersection of a Circular Curve and a Straight Line, 731

24.16.3 Intersection of Two Circular Curves, 731

24.17 Compound and Reverse Curves, 732

24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves, 732

24.19 Spirals, 733

24.19.1 Spiral Geometry, 733

24.19.2 Spiral Calculation and Layout, 735

24.20 Computation of “As-Built” Circular Alignments, 737

24.21 Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves, 740

24.22 Mistakes, 741

Bibliography, 743

25. Vertical Curves, 745

25.1 Introduction, 745

25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve, 746

25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve, 747

25.4 High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve, 749

25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation, 749

25.5.1 Example Computations Using the English System of Units, 750

25.5.2 Example Computations Using the Metric System, 751

25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola, 753

25.7 Curve Computations by Proportion, 754

25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve, 754

25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations, 755

25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve, 755

25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass through a Fixed Point, 758

25.12 Sight Distance, 759

25.13 Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves, 761

25.14 Mistakes, 761

Bibliography, 763

26. Volumes, 765

26.1 Introduction, 765

26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement, 765

26.3 The Cross-Section Method, 766

26.4 Types of Cross Sections, 767

26.5 Average End Area Formula, 768

26.6 Determining End Areas, 770

26.6.1 End Areas by Simple Figures, 770

26.6.2 End Areas by Coordinates, 771

26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts, 772

26.8 Prismoidal Formula, 773

26.9 Volume Computations, 775

26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method, 777

26.11 Contour-Area Method, 778

26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge, 780

26.13 Sources of Error in Determining Volumes, 781

26.14 Mistakes, 781

Bibliography, 784

27. Photogrammetry, 785

27.1 Introduction, 785

27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry, 786

27.3 Aerial Cameras, 787

27.4 Types of Aerial Photographs, 789

27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs, 789

27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph, 792

27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph, 795

27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph, 797

27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph, 799

27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax, 800

27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing, 803

27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax, 805

27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry, 806

27.14 Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments, 807

27.14.1 Direct Optical Projection Stereoplotters, 807

27.14.2 Mechanical Projection Stereoplotters, 810

27.14.3 Analytical Stereoplotters, 811

27.14.4 Softcopy Stereoplotters, 812

27.15 Orthophotos, 815

27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry, 816

27.17 Flight Planning, 817

27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems, 820

27.19 Remote Sensing, 820

27.20 Sources of Error in Photogrammetry, 826

27.21 Mistakes, 826

Bibliography, 829

28. Introduction to Geographic Information Systems, 831

28.1 Introduction, 831

28.2 Land Information Systems, 834

28.3 GIS Data Sources and Classifications, 834

28.4 Spatial Data, 834

28.4.1 Simple Spatial Objects, 835

28.4.2 Vector and Raster Formats, 836

28.4.3 Topology, 839

28.5 Nonspatial Data, 840

28.6 Data Format Conversions, 841

28.6.1 Vector-to-Raster Conversion, 841

28.6.2 Raster-to-Vector Conversion, 843

28.7 Creating GIS Databases, 843

28.7.1 Generating Digital Data from Field Surveys, 844

28.7.2 Digitizing from Aerial Photos with Stereoplotters, 844

28.7.3 Digitizing Existing Graphic Materials, 845

28.7.4 Keyboard Entry, 847

28.7.5 Existing Digital Data Sets, 847

28.7.6 Scanning, 847

28.8 Metadata, 849

28.9 GIS Analytical Functions, 850

28.9.1 Proximity Analysis, 850

28.9.2 Boundary Operations, 851

28.9.3 Spatial Joins, 851

28.9.4 Logical Operations, 853

28.9.5 Other GIS Functions, 853

28.10 GIS Applications, 854

Bibliography, 857

Appendix A. Dumpy Levels, Transits, and Theodolites, 859

A.1 Introduction, 859

A.2 The Dumpy Level, 860

A.3 Introduction to the Transit and Theodolite, 861

A.4 The Transit, 864

A.4.1 Parts of a Transit, 864

A.4.2 Circle Scales and Verniers, 865

A.4.3 Properties of the Transit, 867

A.4.4 Handling, Setting Up, and Using a Transit, 867

A.5 The Theodolite, 869

A.5.1 Characteristics of Theodolites, 870

A.5.2 Repeating Theodolites, 871

A.5.3 Directional Theodolites, 872

A.5.4 Handling, Setting Up, and Using a Theodolite, 873

Appendix B. Example Noteforms, 875

Appendix C. Astronomical Observations, 883

C.1 Introduction, 883

C.2 Overview of Usual Procedures for Astronomical Azimuth Determination, 884

C.3 Ephemerides, 886

C.4 Definitions, 887

C.6 Timing Observations, 893

C.7 Computations for Azimuth from Polaris Observations by the Hour Angle Method, 894

C.8 Azimuth from Solar Observations, 896

Appendix D. Using the Worksheets on the Companion Disk, 899

D.1 Introduction, 899

D.2 Using the Files, 900

D.3 Using the Worksheets as an Aid in Learning, 903

Appendix E. Introduction to Matrices, 905

E.1 Introduction, 905

E.2 Definition of a Matrix, 905

E.3 The Dimensions of a Matrix, 906

E.4 The Transpose of a Matrix, 907

E.5 Matrix Addition, 907

E.6 Matrix Multiplication, 907

E.7 Matrix Inverse, 909

Appendix F. U.S. State Plane Coordinate System Defining Parameters, 911

F.1 Introduction, 911

F.2 Defining Parameters for States Using the Lambert Conformal Conic Map Projection, 911

F.3 Defining Parameters for States Using the Transverse Mercator Map Projection, 913

Appendix G. Answers to Selected Problems, 915

Single PC License Agreement and Limited Warranty, EP1-1

Conversion Factors, EP2-1

Some Other Important Numbers in Surveying (Geomatics), EP2-2

Abbreviations, EP3-1

Some Commonly Used Surveying Symbols, EP3-2

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For Surveying courses offered in Civil Engineering departments. This highly readable, best-selling text presents basic concepts and practical material in each of the areas fundamental to modern surveying (geomatics) practice. Its depth and breadth are ideal for self-study. The 12th Edition is updated throughout to reflect the latest advances and technology.

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