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Copyright, iv
Preface, v
1. Learning: Introduction, Issues, and Historical Perspectives, 1
Learning Defined, 2
Learning Theory and Research, 3
Functions of Theory, 3
Conducting Research, 3
Methods of Assessing Learning, 6
Direct Observations, 6
Written Responses, 7
Oral Responses, 8
Ratings by Others, 8
Self-Reports, 8
Precursors of Modern Learning Theories, 10
Learning Theory and Philosophy, 10
Beginnings of the Psychological Study of Learning, 12
Structuralism and Functionalism, 14
Critical Issues in the Study of Learning, 16
Which Processes Affect Learning?, 17
What Is the Role of Memory?, 17
What Is the Role of Motivation?, 18
How Does Transfer Occur?, 19
Which Processes Are Involved in Self-Regulation?, 19
What Are the Implications for Instruction?, 20
Relation of Learning and Instruction, 21
Historical Perspective, 21
Instructional Commonalities, 22
Integration of Theory and Practice, 23
Three Learning Scenarios, 24
Kathy Stone’s Third-Grade Class, 24
Jim Marshall’s U.S. History Class, 24
Gina Brown’s Educational Psychology Class, 25
Summary, 25
Further Reading, 26
2. Conditioning Theories, 27
Connectionism, 28
Trial-and-Error Learning, 29
Laws of Exercise and Effect, 30
Other Principles, 30
Revisions to Thorndike’s Theory, 31
Instructional Applications, 31
Classical Conditioning, 34
Basic Processes, 34
Informational Variables, 36
Biological Influences, 37
Conditioned Emotional Reactions, 37
Watson’s Behaviorism, 39
Basic Processes, 39
Little Albert Experiment, 40
Contiguous Conditioning, 40
Acts and Movements, 41
Associative Strength, 41
Rewards and Punishments, 42
Habit Formation and Change, 42
Operant Conditioning, 45
Conceptual Framework, 46
Basic Processes, 47
Behavioral Change, 55
Behavior Modification, 56
Verbal Behavior, 58
Self-Regulation, 60
Self-Monitoring, 60
Self-Instruction, 63
Self-Reinforcement, 63
Instructional Applications, 64
Behavioral Objectives, 65
Programmed Instruction, 67
Contingency Contracts, 71
Keller Plan, 72
Summary, 73
Further Reading, 75
3. Social Cognitive Theory, 77
Conceptual Framework for Learning, 79
Reciprocal Interactions, 79
Enactive and Vicarious Learning, 80
Learning and Performance, 81
Modeling Processes, 82
Theories of Imitation, 82
Functions of Modeling, 85
Cognitive Skill Learning, 88
Rule Learning, 90
Motor Skill Learning, 91
Influences on Learning and Performance, 93
Developmental Status of Learners, 93
Model Prestige and Competence, 94
Vicarious Consequences to Models, 95
Goals and Expectations, 98
Goals, 98
Outcome Expectations, 103
Self-Efficacy, 105
Conceptual Overview, 105
Self-Efficacy in Achievement Situations, 107
Models and Self-Efficacy, 109
Motor Skills, 112
Instructional Self-Efficacy, 113
Health and Therapeutic Activities, 113
Self-Regulation, 116
Conceptual Framework, 116
Social Cognitive Processes, 117
Cyclical Nature of Self-Regulation, 121
Instructional Applications, 125
Models, 125
Self-Efficacy, 126
Self-Regulation, 127
Summary, 128
Further Reading, 129
4. Cognitive Information Processing Theory, 130
Cognitive Information Processing System, 131
Assumptions, 131
Two-Store (Dual-Memory) Model, 132
Critique, 133
Levels of Processing, 135
Activation Level, 136
Attention, 137
Theories of Attention, 138
Attention and Learning, 139
Attention and Reading, 141
Perception, 141
Gestalt Theory, 141
Sensory Registers, 145
Long-Term Memory Comparisons, 146
Two-Store Memory Model, 147
Verbal Learning, 147
Short-Term (Working) Memory, 149
Long-Term Memory, 151
Influences on Encoding, 153
Long-Term Memory: Storage, 157
Propositions, 157
Storage of Declarative Knowledge, 159
Storage of Procedural Knowledge, 162
Production Systems and Connectionist Models, 163
Production Systems, 163
Connectionist Models, 165
Long-Term Memory: Retrieval, 166
Retrieval Strategies, 166
Encoding Specificity, 167
Retrieval of Declarative Knowledge, 168
Retrieval of Procedural Knowledge, 170
Long-Term Memory: Forgetting, 171
Verbal Learning, 171
Information Processing, 173
Mental Imagery, 175
Representation of Spatial Information, 175
Imagery in Long-Term Memory, 178
Individual Differences, 179
Summary, 180
Further Reading, 181
5. Cognitive Learning Processes, 183
Conditional Knowledge and Metacognition, 184
Conditional Knowledge, 185
Metacognition and Learning, 186
Variables Influencing Metacognition, 187
Metacognition and Behavior, 189
Concept Learning, 190
The Nature of Concepts, 190
Concept Attainment, 191
Teaching of Concepts, 193
Motivational Processes, 195
Problem Solving, 195
Problem Solving Defined, 196
Historical Influences, 196
Heuristics, 199
Information Processing Model, 200
Problem-Solving Strategies, 200
Problem Solving and Learning, 205
Experts and Novices, 206
Implications for Instruction, 208
Transfer, 209
Historical Views, 210
Activation of Knowledge in Memory, 211
Types of Transfer, 212
Strategy Transfer, 214
Instructional Applications, 215
Self-Regulation and Motivation, 217
Model of Self-Regulation, 217
Learning Strategies, 218
Critique of Strategy Instruction, 226
Academic Studying, 228
Summary, 230
Further Reading, 233
6. Constructivist Theory, 234
Constructivist Assumptions and Perspectives, 236
Overview, 236
Perspectives, 238
Situated Cognition, 239
Contributions and Applications, 240
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, 242
Background, 242
Basic Principles, 243
Zone of Proximal Development, 245
Applications, 246
Critique, 248
Social Processes and Private Speech, 249
Private Speech, 249
Verbalization and Achievement, 250
Socially Mediated Learning, 253
Motivation, 254
Contextual Factors, 255
Implicit Theories, 257
Teachers’ Expectations, 259
Self-Regulation, 262
Sociocultural Influences, 262
Implicit Theories of Self-Regulation, 263
Constructivist Learning Environments, 264
Key Features, 265
APA Learner-Centered Principles, 267
Instructional Methods, 268
Reflective Teaching, 272
Summary, 274
Further Reading, 277
7. Cognition and Instruction, 278
Discovery Learning, 280
The Process of Discovery, 280
Teaching for Discovery, 281
Meaningful Reception Learning, 283
Meaningfulness and Expository Teaching, 283
Advance Organizers, 284
Conditions of Learning, 286
Learning Outcomes, 286
Learning Events, 287
Learning Hierarchies, 287
Phases of Learning, 288
Models of Instruction, 290
Learning Time, 290
Mastery Learning, 292
Inquiry Teaching, 294
Instruction with Worked Examples, 295
Cognitive Load, 298
Peer-Assisted Learning, 299
Research on Teaching, 300
Teacher Planning and Decision Making, 300
Instructional Practices, 302
Learner Characteristics, 304
Aptitude–Treatment Interactions, 304
Cognitive Styles, 305
Learners’ Resource Allocations, 309
Adapting Instruction, 310
Technology and Instruction, 311
Functions of Technology, 311
Technological Applications, 312
Future Directions, 320
Summary, 322
Further Reading, 323
8. Development and Learning, 324
Beginnings of the Scientific Study of Development, 326
Historical Foundations, 326
Philosophical Foundations, 326
The Child Study Movement, 327
Perspectives on Human Development, 329
Issues Relevant to Learning, 330
Types of Developmental Theories, 332
Structural Theories, 335
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, 337
Developmental Processes, 337
Implications for Instruction, 340
Bruner’s Theory of Cognitive Growth, 342
Cognitive Growth and Knowledge Representation, 342
Spiral Curriculum, 343
Contemporary Themes in Development and Learning, 345
Developmental Changes, 345
Developmentally Appropriate Instruction, 346
Transitions in Schooling, 347
Familial Influences, 350
SES, 350
Home Environment, 352
Parental Involvement, 353
Motivation and Development, 356
Developmental Changes, 357
Implications, 358
Development and Instruction, 359
Case’s Model of Instruction, 359
Teacher–Student Interactions, 361
Summary, 364
Further Reading, 365
9. Neuroscience of Learning, 366
Organization and Structures, 368
Neural Organization, 368
Brain Structures, 370
Localization and Interconnections, 375
Brain Research Methods, 377
Neurophysiology of Learning, 379
Information Processing System, 379
Memory Networks, 382
Language Learning, 385
Brain Development, 386
Influential Factors, 386
Phases of Development, 387
Critical Periods, 388
Language Development, 390
Motivation and Emotions, 393
Motivation, 393
Emotions, 395
Implications for Teaching and Learning, 397
Relevance of Brain Research, 397
Educational Issues, 398
Brain-Based Educational Practices, 399
Summary, 402
Further Reading, 405
10. Content-Area Learning, 406
Skill Acquisition, 408
General and Specific Skills, 408
Novice-to-Expert Research Methodology, 409
Language Comprehension, 411
Components of Comprehension, 411
Parsing, 412
Utilization, 415
Reading, 416
Decoding, 417
Comprehension, 420
Writing, 424
Composition Processes, 426
Reviewing Processes, 428
Motivation and Self-Regulation, 429
Mathematics, 430
Computation Skills, 431
Problem-Solving Skills, 433
Constructivism, 435
Individual Differences, 437
Science, 438
Expert–Novice Differences, 438
Reasoning, 440
Constructivism and Scientific Beliefs, 444
Social Studies, 446
History, 446
Geography, 448
Summary, 449
Further Reading, 450
11. Motivation, 452
Model of Motivated Learning, 454
Pretask, 454
During Task, 455
Posttask, 455
Historical Perspectives, 455
Drive Theory, 456
Conditioning Theory, 457
Cognitive Consistency Theory, 457
Humanistic Theory, 459
Achievement Motivation, 465
Expectancy-Value Theory, 466
Familial Influences, 468
Fear of Success, 469
Contemporary Model of Achievement Motivation, 469
Self-Worth Theory, 472
Task and Ego Involvement, 473
Achievement Motivation Training, 474
Attribution Theory, 475
Locus of Control, 475
Naïve Analysis of Action, 476
Attribution Theory of Achievement, 477
Attribution Change Programs, 480
Social Cognitive Theory, 483
Goals and Expectations, 483
Social Comparison, 484
Goal Theory, 487
Goal Orientations, 487
Conceptions of Ability, 490
Implications for Teaching, 491
Perceptions of Control, 492
Control Beliefs, 492
Learned Helplessness, 493
Students with Learning Problems, 494
Self-Concept, 496
Dimensions and Development, 496
Self-Concept and Learning, 497
Intrinsic Motivation, 498
Theoretical Perspectives, 498
Overjustification and Reward, 502
Motivation and Self-Regulation, 503
Volition, 505
Values, 507
Self-Schemas, 507
Help Seeking, 508
Summary, 509
Further Reading, 510
12. Next Steps, 512
Learning Questions, 513
Which Processes Affect Learning?, 514
What Is the Role of Memory?, 514
What Is the Role of Motivation?, 514
How Does Transfer Occur?, 514
Which Processes Are Involved in Self-Regulation?, 515
What Are the Implications for Instruction?, 515
Learning Theories, 515
Conditioning, 515
Social Cognitive, 515
Cognitive Information Processing, 516
Constructivist, 516
Conclusion, 516
Glossary, 517
References, 528
Author Index, 565
Subject Index, 573

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