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Copyright, ii
Preface, iii
1. Roots of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1
The Usefulness of Explanations, 2
Biophysical Explanations, 3
Biochemical Explanations, 4
The Usefulness of Biophysical and Biochemical Explanations, 5
Developmental Explanations, 6
Psychoanalytic Theory, 7
A Stage Theory of Cognitive Development, 8
The Usefulness of Developmental Explanations, 8
Cognitive Explanations, 9
The Usefulness of Cognitive Explanations, 10
Behavioral Explanations, 12
Positive Reinforcement, 13
Negative Reinforcement, 13
Punishment, 13
Extinction, 14
Antecedent Control, 14
Other Learning Principles, 15
The Task of the Behaviorist, 16
The Usefulness of Behavioral Explanations, 16
Historical Development of Behaviorism, 18
Historical Precedents, 18
Philosophical and Psychological Antecedents, 19
Summary, 22
Key Terms, 22
Discussion Questions, 22
2. Preparing Behavioral Objectives, 23
Definition and Purpose, 24
Pinpointing Behavior, 25
Educational Goals, 27
Establishing Goals, 27
Components of a Behavioral Objective, 29
Identify the Learner, 30
Identify the Target Behavior, 30
Identify the Conditions of Intervention, 34
Identify Criteria for Acceptable Performance, 35
Format for a Behavioral Objective, 37
Expanding the Scope of the Basic Behavioral Objective, 41
Hierarchy of Response Competence, 42
Hierarchy of Levels of Learning, 44
Learning Levels for the Learner with Limitations, 47
Behavioral Objectives and the IEP, 48
The Individual Transition Plan, 50
The Behavioral Intervention Plan, 51
Summary, 52
Key Terms, 52
Discussion Questions, 52
3. Procedures for Collecting Data, 53
A Rationale, 54
Choosing a System, 55
Anecdotal Reports, 59
Structuring an Anecdotal Report, 59
Permanent Product Recording, 62
Observational Recording Systems, 64
Event Recording, 64
Interval Recording and Time Sampling, 72
Duration and Latency Recording, 83
Duration Recording, 83
Latency Recording, 84
How Can All This Be Done?, 86
Summary of Data Collection Systems, 88
Reliability, 89
Factors That May Affect Data Collection and Interobserver Agreement, 90
Summary, 92
Key Terms, 92
Discussion Questions, 92
4. Graphing Data, 95
The Simple Line Graph, 96
Basic Elements of the Line Graph, 96
Transferring Data to a Graph, 99
Additional Graphing Conventions, 108
Cumulative Graphs, 109
Bar Graphs, 112
Summary, 114
Key Terms, 114
Discussion Questions, 114
5. Single-Subject Designs, 115
Variables and Functional Relations, 117
Basic Categories of Designs, 118
Single-Subject Designs, 119
Baseline Measures, 120
Intervention Measures, 122
Experimental Control, 122
AB Design, 122
Implementation, 123
Graphic Display, 123
Design Application, 124
Advantages and Disadvantages, 124
Reversal Design, 125
Implementation, 126
Graphic Display, 127
Design Variations, 127
Research Application, 128
Teaching Application, 129
Advantages and a Disadvantage, 130
Changing Criterion Design, 130
Implementation, 130
Graphic Display, 132
Research Application, 132
Teaching Application, 134
Advantage and Disadvantage, 135
Multiple Baseline Design, 135
Implementation, 136
Graphic Display, 136
Research Applications, 137
Teaching Application, 143
Advantages and Disadvantages, 143
Alternating Treatments Design, 145
Implementation, 145
Graphic Display, 146
Research Application, 146
Teaching Application, 148
Advantages and Disadvantages, 149
Changing Conditions Design, 150
Implementation, 150
Graphic Display, 153
Research Application, 153
Teaching Application, 155
Advantages and Disadvantages, 156
Evaluating Single-Subject Designs, 156
Analysis of Results, 156
Visual Analysis of Graphs, 156
Action Research and Single-Subject Design Tools, 162
Components of Action Research, 163
Single-subject Design Parallels and Contributions, 163
Example of an Action Research Study, 164
Summary, 164
Key Terms, 165
Discussion Questions, 165
6. Developing a Hypothesis for Behavior Change: Functional Assessment and Functional Analysis, 169
Behavior and Its Function, 170
The Behavior Support Plan, 176
Development of a Behavior Support Plan, 179
Comparative Accuracy, 198
Positive Behavior Support, 208
Summary, 212
Key Terms, 213
Discussion Questions, 213
7. Arranging Consequences That Increase Behavior, 215
Positive Reinforcement, 217
Choosing Effective Reinforcers, 218
Making Reinforcers Contingent, 222
Making Reinforcement Immediate, 223
Types of Reinforcers, 223
Contracting, 240
Variations in Administration of Reinforcers, 243
Group Contingencies and Peer Mediation, 246
Schedules of Reinforcement, 248
Negative Reinforcement, 254
Inadvertent Use, 255
Appropriate Means of Escape, 257
Using Negative Reinforcement for Instruction, 258
Natural Reinforcement, 259
Summary, 260
Key Terms, 260
Discussion Questions, 260
8. Arranging Consequences That Decrease Behavior, 263
Procedural Alternatives for Behavior Reduction, 266
Level I: Reinforcement-Based Strategies, 266
Differential Reinforcement of Lower Rates of Behavior, 266
Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors, 268
Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior and Incompatible Behavior, 271
Noncontingent Reinforcement, 274
Level II: Extinction, 276
Delayed Reaction, 277
Increased Rate, 277
Controlling Attention, 279
Extinction-Induced Aggression, 279
Spontaneous Recovery, 279
Imitation or Reinforcement by Others, 279
Limited Generalizability, 280
Sensory Extinction, 280
Punishment, 282
Level III: Removal of Desirable Stimuli, 283
Response-Cost Procedures, 283
Time-Out Procedures, 285
Level IV: Presentation of Aversive Stimuli, 291
Types of Aversive Stimuli, 293
Disadvantages of Aversive Stimuli, 296
Overcorrection, 298
Restitutional Overcorrection, 298
Positive-Practice Overcorrection, 298
Summary, 301
Key Terms, 301
Discussion Questions, 301
9. Differential Reinforcement: Antecedent Control and Shaping, 305
Antecedent Influences on Behavior, 306
Differential Reinforcement for Stimulus Control, 308
Principles of Discrimination, 308
Discrimination Training, 309
Prompts, 311
Rules as Verbal Prompts, 311
Instructions as Verbal Prompts, 311
Hints as Verbal Prompts, 312
Self-Operated Verbal Prompts, 312
Visual Prompts, 313
Modeling, 315
Physical Guidance, 317
Other Tactile Prompts, 318
Fading, 319
Decreasing Assistance, 319
Graduated Guidance, 321
Time Delay, 321
Increasing Assistance, 322
Effectiveness of Methods for Fading Prompts, 323
Effective Prompting, 325
Teaching Complex Behaviors, 326
Task Analysis, 326
Chaining, 329
How to Manage Teaching Chains, 333
Differential Reinforcement for Shaping, 333
Summary, 339
Key Terms, 339
Discussion Questions, 340
10. Providing for Generalization of Behavior Change, 341
Generalization, 343
Stimulus Generalization, 344
Maintenance, 345
Response Generalization, 346
Training Generalization, 346
Train and Hope, 347
Sequentially Modify, 348
Introduce to Natural Maintaining Contingencies, 351
Train Sufficient Exemplars, 354
Train Loosely, 357
Use Indiscriminable Contingencies, 358
Program Common Stimuli, 359
Mediate Generalization and Train to Generalize, 362
Summary, 362
Key Terms, 363
Discussion Questions, 363
11. Teaching Students to Manage Their Own Behavior, 365
A Common Experience, 367
Preparing Students to Manage Their Own Behavior, 368
Goal Setting, 369
Self-Recording of Data, 370
Self-Evaluation, 373
Self-Punishment, 377
Self-Instruction, 378
Self-Management for Learners with Severe Disabilities, 382
Self-Management for Learners with Mild Disabilities, 383
Self-Management for Students at Risk, 383
Summary, 383
Key Terms, 384
Discussion Questions, 384
12. Responsible Use of Applied Behavior Analysis Procedures, 385
Concerns About Applied Behavior Analysis, 386
Confusion with Other Procedures, 387
Reaction to Controversial Procedures, 388
Concerns About Coercion, 389
Ethical Use of Applied Behavior Analysis Procedures, 391
A Therapeutic Environment, 392
Services Whose Overriding Goal Is Personal Welfare, 393
Treatment by a Competent Behavior Analyst, 394
Programs That Teach Functional Skills, 395
Behavioral Assessment and Ongoing Evaluation, 396
The Most Effective Treatment Procedures Available, 396
Accountability, 397
Theory or Recipes?, 401
Summary, 402
Key Terms, 402
Discussion Questions, 402
13. Putting It All together, 403
Stimulus Control, 403
Physical Arrangement, 404
Time Structure, 405
Instructional Structure, 406
Verbal Structure, 407
Specificity, 407
Economy, 408
Consequences, 408
Rules and Procedures, 409
Teacher Characteristics, 409
A Look into Learning Environments, 410
Remember Miss Harper?, 410
Ms. Mitchell’s Self-Contained Class, 411
Ms. Washington’s Resource Room, 413
Who Needs Behavior Mod?, 415
Mr. Boyd’s Math Classes, 417
Ms. Michaels Has It in the Bag, 419
Summary, 422
Discussion Questions, 422
Glossary, 423
References, 429
Name Index, 465
Subject Index, 477

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