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Copyright, ii
Preface, xxiii
Acknowledgments, xxiv
About the Author, xxv
Part 1. Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation, 1
Chapter 1. Criminal Investigation: An Overview, 3
Introduction, 4
The Romance and Reality of Crime Solving, 4
Criminal Investigation and Our English Heritage, 5
The Bow Street Runners, 6
The London Metropolitan Police, 7
The Creation of Scotland Yard, 8
Criminal Investigation in America, 8
The Pinkerton National Detective Agency, 9
Prohibition, 10
The Creation of the FBI, 10
The Increase of Forensic Science in Crime Detection, 11
Criminal Investigation Research, 11
The RAND Corporation Study, 11
The PERF Study, 12
Computer-aided Investigations, 14
The Objectives of Criminal Investigation, 15
The Emergence of the Police Specialist, 17
Types of Investigations, 17
Crime Scene Investigators, 17
Major Case Task Forces, 18
Modes of Investigation, 19
The Role of the Criminal Investigator, 19
Characteristics of the Investigator, 19
Gathering Information, 20
Field Operations, 20
Arrests, 20
Patrol Investigations, 21
Discussion Questions, 22
Chapter 2. Processing the Crime Scene, 25
Introduction, 26
The Preliminary Investigation, 26
The Role of Evidence at the Crime Scene, 27
Types of Evidence, 28
Legal Considerations, 29
The First Officer’s Responsibilities, 32
Broadcasting a Flash Description, 35
Managing Emergency Situations, 36
Securing the Scene, 36
Handling Special Situations at the Scene, 38
Dead Body, 39
Hanging Victim, 39
Firearms, 39
Collecting Electronic Evidence, 40
Biohazardous Materials, 41
Chemical and Other Hazardous Wastes, 43
Assessing the Crime Scene, 43
Collecting Evidence, 45
Interviewing Witnesses, 46
Contacting the Medical Examiner, 47
Conducting a Neighborhood Canvass, 48
Preparing Crime Scene Reports, 48
Performing the Follow-up Investigation, 48
Discussion Questions, 50
Part 2. The Investigative Process, 51
Chapter 3. The Crime Scene: Field Notes, Documenting, and Reporting, 53
Introduction, 54
Field Notes and Reports, 54
The Role of Field Notes, 54
When to Take Notes, 55
What to Write Down, 56
Developing a Note-Taking System, 57
Field Interview Cards, 58
Putting Field Notes to Work, 58
Storage of Field Notes, 58
Using a Tape Recorder, 58
Using Field Notes in the Courtroom, 58
Writing the Official Police Report, 59
Factuality, 59
Thoroughness, 60
Getting to the Point, 61
Word Choice, 61
The Structure of the Report, 61
The Initial Complaint, 62
Supplemental Reports, 62
Photographing the Crime Scene, 64
The New Age of Digital Imaging, 65
Photographs as Evidence, 66
Preserving Digital Images, 66
What to Photograph, 66
Other Hints, 68
Admissibility of Photographic Evidence, 70
Identification of Photographs, 71
Surveillance Photographs, 71
Capturing the Crime Scene on Digital Video, 72
The Crime Scene Sketch, 73
Reasons to Sketch, 73
Putting It Together, 73
Measurement, 74
Rough and Finished Sketches, 74
Choosing the Best Method, 76
Discussion Questions, 78
Chapter 4. Search and Seizure, 81
Introduction, 82
Due Process and the Constitution, 82
Legal Guidelines for Searches, 83
The Probable Cause Requirement, 83
The Exclusionary Rule, 83
The Fruit of the Poisonous Tree Doctrine, 85
Search Incident to Lawful Arrest, 85
Exceptions to the Exclusionary Rule, 86
The Good Faith Exception, 86
The Inevitable Discovery Doctrine, 87
The Computer Errors Exception, 88
Searches with a Warrant, 88
When Are Search Warrants Necessary?, 88
When Search Warrants Aren’t Required, 89
Advantages of Searching with a Search Warrant, 89
Structuring the Warrant, 90
The Affidavit, 92
The Search Warrant, 92
The Search Warrant Return, 92
Execution of the Warrant, 93
Anticipatory Search Warrants, 95
The Triggering Conditions, 96
Warrantless Searches, 97
Search by Consent, 97
Emergency Searches, 100
Searches Incident to Arrest, 101
Stop-and-Frisk Searches, 101
Plain-View Searches, 105
Automobile Searches, 106
Open-Field Searches, 110
Beginning the Search, 111
Search Patterns, 111
Body Cavity Searches, 112
Searching the Scene, 113
Rules for Collecting Evidence, 114
Gathering and Preserving Evidence, 114
The Chain of Custody, 115
Marking the Evidence, 117
Special Cases in Evidence Handling, 118
Infected Evidence, 119
Hepatitis B: A Greater Threat, 119
Firearms, 120
Bullets, Cartridges, and Empty Cases, 121
Stains, 121
Glass, 122
Impressions, 122
Drugs, 122
Plant Material, 122
Powdered Material, 123
Liquid Material, 123
Tablets or Capsules, 123
Important Cases to Remember, 123
Discussion Questions, 124
Chapter 5. Identification of Criminal Suspects: Field and Laboratory Processes, 125
Introduction, 126
The Role of the Crime Laboratory, 126
Trace Evidence, 127
Questioned Documents, 127
Forensic Chemistry, 127
DNA Analysis, 128
Ballistics, 129
Latent Prints, 131
Forensic Photography, 133
Specialized Laboratory Equipment, 133
Fingerprinting, 134
The History of Fingerprinting, 134
Types of Prints, 136
Types of Patterns, 137
Searching for Prints, 139
Developing Latent Fingerprints, 140
Powders, 140
Iodine, 142
Ninhydrin, 142
Silver Nitrate, 142
Superglue Fuming, 144
Lasers, 144
Preservation of Fingerprints, 144
Prints from Gloves, 145
Integrated Automated Fingerptint Identification System (IAFIS), 145
The Genetic Fingerprint: DNA, 147
What Is DNA?, 147
DNA’s History, 148
Analyzing DNA, 149
Admissibility of DNA as Evidence, 152
Other Uses of DNA, 154
Handwriting Analysis, 154
Collection of Exemplars, 155
The Writing Medium, 155
The Writing Area, 156
Criminal Composites, 156
Personality Profiling, 156
Safeguarding against Misidentifications, 158
Procedures for Identification, 159
The Right to Counsel at Eyewitness Identifications, 165
Discussion Questions, 165
Chapter 6. The Criminal Intelligence Function, 167
Introduction, 168
The History of Intelligence Collection, 168
Pitfalls of Intelligence Gathering, 169
The Usefulness of Intelligence, 169
Overt and Covert Intelligence Collection, 170
Criminal Intelligence and Criminal Investigation, 171
Defining Criminal Intelligence, 171
Types of Intelligence, 172
Procedures for Intelligence Gathering, 173
Phase 1: Target Selection, 174
Phase 2: Data Collection, 175
Phase 3: Data Collation and Analysis, 176
Phase 4: Dissemination, 176
Analyzing the Information, 177
Link Analysis, 177
Flowcharting, 178
The RISS Projects, 180
Auditing and Purging Files, 181
Discussion Questions, 182
Chapter 7. Undercover and Surveillance Operations, 183
Introduction, 184
Overview, 184
Undercover Operations, 186
Preparing for Undercover Assignments, 188
Personnel Considerations, 188
Functions of Undercover Officers, 188
Equipment, 189
Vehicles, 189
Support Officer Vehicles, 189
Undercover Officer Vehicles, 190
The Undercover Working Environment, 190
The Cover Story, 190
Protecting the Undercover Officer’s Cover, 191
Infiltration, 192
Surveillance Operations, 195
Preparing for the Surveillance, 196
Foot Surveillance, 197
Difficulties in Surveillance Operations, 199
Vehicle Surveillance, 200
Stakeouts, or “Stationary Surveillance”, 202
Briefings, 203
Investigative Procedures, 203
Post-Stakeout Procedures, 206
Electronic Surveillance and Wire Taps, 207
Minimization Requirements for Electronic Surveillance, 208
The Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986, 208
The Telecommunications Act of 1996, 209
Thermal Imaging, 209
Satellite-Assisted Surveillance, 209
Discussion Questions, 213
Chapter 8. Making an Arrest, 215
Introduction, 216
Defining Arrest, 216
What Is an Arrest?, 216
The Legal Arrest, 216
Detention versus Arrest, 218
Investigatory Stops, 219
When Is a Person Under Arrest?, 220
Use of Force, 222
Defining Use of Force, 224
Understanding Reasonableness, 225
Levels of Force, 225
Deadly Force, 227
The Fleeing-Felon Rule, 228
The Deadly Force Triangle, 228
Off-Duty Arrests, 229
Postarrest Procedures, 231
Discussion Questions, 231
Chapter 9. Interviews and Interrogations, 233
Introduction, 234
Interview versus Interrogation, 234
The Interview Process, 234
Interviewing Witnesses, Citizens, and Victims, 235
The Suspect Interrogation Process, 237
Goals of the Interrogation, 237
Legal Requirements of the Interrogation, 237
Safeguarding against Police Misconduct, 237
Coercion and Duress, 237
Unreasonable Delay in Arraignments, 239
The Suspect’s Right to Legal Counsel, 240
Preparation for the Interrogation, 243
The Interrogation Setting, 244
The Interrogation Procedure, 245
Interrogation Styles, 245
Verbal Symptoms of Deception, 246
Why Suspects Cooperate and Confess, 248
Searching for Information, 248
Closing the Communication Gap, 248
Admission versus Confession, 248
Written Statements, 249
Structuring the Written Statement, 249
Recorded Statements, 251
The Recording Procedure, 251
Videotaped Confessions, 251
Recap Bias, 252
Framing the Tapes, 252
Use of the Polygraph, 252
Accuracy of the Polygraph, 253
Administration of the Polygraph Exam, 253
Admissibility of Polygraph Results, 254
The Voice Stress Analyzer, 255
Discussion Questions, 256
Chapter 10. Development and Management of Informants, 257
Introduction, 258
Who Are Informants?, 261
Utilizing the Informant, 262
Informant Motivations, 264
Documenting Your “Source”, 265
Maintaining Control of the Informant, 267
Protecting the Informant’s Identity, 267
Legal Considerations, 268
Federal Protection of the Informant, 269
Other Problems with Informants, 269
Discussion Questions, 270
Part 3. Interpersonal Violence, 271
Chapter 11. Wrongful Death, 273
Introduction, 274
Types of Wrongful Death, 275
Modes of Death, 277
Legal Characteristics of Homicide, 278
Elements of Homicide, 279
The Preliminary Investigation, 279
Protecting the Crime Scene, 280
Taking Notes at the Scene, 280
Identifying the Victim, 281
The Deceased Victim, 281
The Victim Who Is Still Alive, 285
Obtaining a Dying Declaration, 285
Estimating the Time of Death, 285
Changes in the Body, 285
Insects, 287
Animals, 287
Bodies Found in Water, 287
Gunshot Wounds as Evidence, 287
Entrance Wounds, 292
Exit Wounds, 293
Smudging, 293
Tattooing, 293
Defense Wounds, 293
Shotgun Wounds, 294
Pitfalls in Homicide Investigations, 295
Serial, Mass, and Sensational Murders, 297
National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime, 300
VI-CAP, 300
Autoerotic Death, 300
Suicide, 302
Evidence of Suicide, 302
The Suicide Note, 302
Reconstructing the Death, 303
Materials Used, 303
Motives for Suicide, 303
Discussion Questions, 304
Chapter 12. Robbery, 305
Introduction, 306
Robbery Offenses, 306
Understanding Robbery, 306
Defining Robbery, 306
Trends, 307
Consequences of Robbery, 307
Elements of Robbery, 308
Types of Robbery, 308
Commercial Robberies: Stores and Banks, 310
Street Robberies, 312
Residential Robberies, 312
School Robberies, 312
Vehicle Robberies, 313
Types of Robbers, 313
The First Officer on the Scene, 314
The Preliminary Investigation, 315
The Neighborhood Canvass, 315
The Robber’s Method of Operation, 317
Physical Evidence, 318
The Role of Witnesses, 319
Discussion Questions, 320
Chapter 13. Assault and Related Offenses, 321
Introduction, 322
Trends, 322
Weapons Used, 322
Legal Classifications of Assault, 323
Simple Assault, 323
Aggravated Assault, 324
Self-Defense, 325
The Preliminary Investigation, 325
Documenting the Elements of Assault, 326
Protecting the Crime Scene, 326
Initial Questioning, 326
Searching the Crime Scene, 327
Domestic Violence, 327
The Investigative Response to Domestic Violence, 327
Legal Approaches to Domestic Violence, 330
Elder Abuse, 330
Stalking, 332
Who Stalks Whom?, 333
Forms of Stalking, 334
Occurrence of Stalking, 335
The Investigative Response to Stalking, 335
Discussion Questions, 336
Chapter 14. Sexual Assault, 339
Introduction, 340
The Role of the Sex-Crime Investigator, 340
Forcible Rape, 340
Trends, 342
Legal Aspects of Rape, 342
Corroboration, 344
Date Rape, 344
Evidence in Rape Cases, 346
The Rape Evidence Kit, 348
Investigative Procedures: The Crime Scene Investigation, 349
Investigative Procedures: The Medical Examination, 350
Investigative Procedures: The Interview, 351
Actual versus False Complaints, 354
Profiling the Rapist, 355
The Power-Reassurance (Manhood) Rapist, 355
The Power-Assertive Rapist, 358
The Anger-Retaliatory Rapist, 358
The Anger-Excitation Rapist, 359
The Rapist’s Approach, 360
Methods of Control, 360
Discussion Questions, 361
Chapter 15. Missing and Abducted Persons, 363
Introduction, 364
A Look at the “Big Picture”, 366
The Statistical Breakdown, 367
Profiling the Abductor, 368
Types of Missing Children Cases, 369
Abductions via the Internet, 370
The Investigative Response, 372
The Initial Call for Assistance, 372
Responding Officer Responsibilities, 373
The Sixteen Steps of Investigation, 374
The Investigator’s Role, 381
The 2003 Child Protection Act (Amber Alerts), 383
Interviewing Suspects in Abductions, 385
Discussion Questions, 386
Chapter 16. Child Abuse and Neglect, 387
Introduction, 388
Abuse of Children, 388
The Scope of the Problem, 388
The Nature of Child Abuse, 390
Investigative Resources, 391
Emergency Room Personnel and Medical Examiners, 391
Battered Child Syndrome, 393
Recognizing Abuse, 395
Taking the Initial Report, 395
The Initial Police Response to Child Abuse, 395
Steps in Investigating Battered Child Syndrome, 396
Interviews with Medical Personnel, 396
Other Important Sources of Information, 397
Consultation with Experts, 397
Interviews with Caretakers, 397
The Crime Scene Investigation, 398
Investigator Guidelines for Child Homicide, 399
Shaken Baby Syndrome, 399
Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy, 400
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 401
Conclusion, 402
Sexual Abuse of Children, 402
The Preliminary Investigation, 404
Interviewing the Child Victim, 404
Closing the Interview, 406
Children as Witnesses, 406
The Child Molester, 407
Investigating the Molester, 409
Premeditation and Intent, 409
Discussion Questions, 411
Part 4. Property Crimes, 413
Chapter 17. Burglary, 415
Introduction, 416
Burglary, 416
Trends, 416
Burglary versus Robbery, 417
Why Criminals Burglarize, 417
Elements of Burglary, 417
How a Thief Works, 418
Types of Burglaries, 418
ATM Burglaries, 419
Types of Burglars, 419
The Amateur Burglar, 419
The Professional Burglar, 419
The Preliminary Investigation, 421
Indications of Burglary, 421
Approach with Caution!, 422
Physical Evidence, 423
Possession of Burglary Tools, 424
Safe Burglaries, 425
Tracing Stolen Property, 426
The Fence, 426
Proving the Receipt of Stolen Property, 427
Circumstantial Evidence, 427
Burglary Prevention Through Proactive Patrol, 428
Discussion Questions, 428
Chapter 18. Larceny–Theft, 429
Introduction, 430
Larceny–Theft Offenses, 430
Trends, 431
Forgery and Fraud, 431
Check Fraud, 432
Investigating Check Forgery, 434
Embezzlement, 435
Investigating Embezzlement, 436
Categories of Embezzlement, 436
Credit Card Fraud, 438
Obtaining Credit Cards, 438
Using Stolen Credit Cards, 438
Investigating Credit Card Theft, 439
Shoplifting, 439
Investigating Shoplifting, 441
Identity Theft, 443
Identity Theft Legislation, 446
The Role of the Federal Trade Commission, 446
Types of ID Theft and ID Theft Operations, 447
How Stolen Information Is Used, 448
The Investigative Response, 450
Reports of Identity Theft, 450
Discussion Questions, 454
Chapter 19. Motor Vehicle Theft, 455
Introduction, 456
Motor Vehicle Theft Offenses, 457
Trends, 457
Motivations for Motor Vehicle Theft, 460
Joyriding, 460
Theft for Resale, 460
Transportation for Other Crimes, 461
Stripping and Chop-Shop Operations, 461
The Preliminary Investigation, 462
The Investigative Traffic Stop, 463
The Vehicle Identification Number, 464
History of the VIN, 465
How the VIN Works, 465
The Altered VIN, 465
Disguising the Stolen Vehicle, 466
The Salvage Switch Method, 466
The Modified VIN Technique, 466
The Bogus VIN, 467
The Rip-Off, 467
Tools of the Trade, 469
Recognizing the Stolen Vehicle, 469
The Usefulness of Alarms, 470
Carjacking, 471
Theft of Off-Road Machinery, 472
Motor Vehicle Fraud, 473
Methods of Fraud, 473
Stolen Motorcycles, 473
The Motorcycle VIN, 474
Methods of Motorcycle Theft, 474
The National Auto Theft Bureau (NATB), 475
Discussion Questions, 475
Chapter 20. Arson and Bombings, 477
Introduction, 478
Arson Offenses, 478
Trends, 478
Elements of Arson, 479
Legal Categories, 479
The Police and Fire Alliance, 479
Arson Investigative Techniques, 480
The Preliminary Investigation of Arson, 480
Identify the Point of Origin, 482
Search for Flammable Liquids, 482
Observe the Span of the Fire, 482
Photograph the Scene, 482
Identify Plants or Trailers, 482
Question Witnesses, 483
Observe Alligatoring, 483
Other Clues, 484
Motivations of the Arsonist, 484
Arson for Profit, 485
Arson for Revenge, 486
Arson for Vandalism, 486
Arson for Crime Concealment, 487
Pyromania, 487
Serial Fire Setters, 487
Profiling the Fire Starter, 488
The Role of the Insurance Industry, 489
Prosecution of Arson Cases, 490
Bombing Incidents, 490
What Is a Bomb?, 492
Teen Bombings, 492
Investigating the Bomb Threat, 495
The Written Bomb Threat, 495
Booby Traps, 495
Safety Precautions, 496
Bomb Search Techniques, 496
First Room-Searching Sweep, 498
Second Room-Searching Sweep, 498
Third Room-Searching Sweep, 498
Fourth Room-Searching Sweep, 498
When a Bomb Is Found, 499
Handling the Media, 499
Discussion Questions, 500
Part 5. Vice Crimes and Related Offenses, 501
Chapter 21. Drug Offenses, 503
Introduction, 504
Principal Drugs of Abuse, 505
Characteristics of Drugs, 505
Cannabis, 506
Narcotics, 507
Stimulants, 509
Hallucinogens, 512
Depressants, 513
Designer Drugs, 515
The General Structure of Drug Laws, 515
The 1970 Controlled Substances Act, 516
Initiating Drug Cases, 517
Confidential Informants, 518
Case Planning, 518
Investigation of an Illegal Drug Laboratory, 520
The Drug Raid, 522
Purpose of the Raid, 522
Team Personnel, 523
Preraid Planning, 523
Raid Execution, 524
Reverse Sting Drug Operations, 526
Planning the Reverse Sting, 526
Manpower Considerations, 526
Conducting the Sting, 527
Pharmaceutical Diversion, 530
Diversion by Legal Registrants, 530
Diversion Tactics, 530
Physician Investigations, 532
Doctors Who Divert Drugs, 532
Nurses Who Divert Drugs, 534
Drug Theft, 534
Substituting Drugs, 534
Diversion by Street Criminals, 535
Extraordinary Drug Enforcement Techniques, 536
Drug Courier Profiling, 536
Asset Forfeiture, 538
Discussion Questions, 539
Chapter 22. White-Collar Crime, 541
Introduction, 542
Defining White-Collar Crime, 543
Corporate Crime, 543
Money Laundering, 544
The History of Money Laundering, 545
Combating the Money Laundering Problem, 546
Techniques of Money Laundering, 547
Confidence Games, 550
The Pigeon Drop, 550
The Bank Examiner Scheme, 551
The Pyramid “Get Rich Quick” Scheme, 551
Travel Scams, 552
Home Repair Scams, 553
Contest Cons, 554
The Magazine Subscription Scam, 554
Computer Crime, 554
Defining Computer Crime, 557
The Nature of the Crime, 557
Computer Crime Investigations, 558
Classification of Computer Crimes, 558
Typical Forms of Computer Crimes, 559
Automatic Teller Machine Frauds, 562
The Preliminary Investigation of Computer Crimes, 562
Evidence Considerations, 563
Profile of the Computer Criminal, 564
Interviewing the Computer Crime Suspect, 565
Discussion Questions, 565
Part 6. Prosecution, 567
Chapter 23. Preparation for Court, 569
Introduction, 570
Preparing for Trial, 570
Going to Court, 575
The Investigator as a Professional Witness, 576
Preparing for Court, 576
Reviewing Evidence and Reports, 576
Credibility as a Witness, 577
Appearance in Court, 577
Courtroom Demeanor, 578
Testifying in Court, 578
The Role of the Expert Witness, 580
Summary, 582
Discussion Questions, 582
Appendix A. Physical Evidence, 585
Appendix B. Cases, 599
Glossary, 601
Index, 615

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