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Copyright, iv
Preface, v
Special Features, xv
Unit 1. Introduction, 1
Chapter 1. Becoming a Science Teacher, 2
Am I Qualified to Teach Science?, 2
Understanding Science and Technology, 2
Understanding the Purposes of Science Teaching, 3
Organizing Science Instruction, 3
Understanding Student Learning, 4
Recognizing Personal Meaning in Teaching and Learning, 4
Personalizing Science Teaching, 5
Managing the Classroom and Maintaining Discipline, 5
Realizing Decisions Determine Effective Science Teaching, 6
What Is Science Teaching Really Like?, 6
Middle School Science Programs, 6
High School Science Programs, 7
Conversations with Science Teachers, 11
A Conclusion About Science Teaching, 12
How Can You Become an Effective Science Teacher?, 12
Becoming a Science Teacher: Closing Reflections, 12
Summary, 13
Chapter 2. Beginning Your Instructional Theory, 20
Why Develop an Instructional Theory?, 20
What Are the Foundations of an Instructional Theory?, 20
Characteristics of an Instructional Theory, 21
Purpose, Goals, and Objectives, 22
Learning and Teaching, 22
Effective Relationships with Students, 24
Effective Instruction, 25
Instructional Decisions, 25
Research on Effective Teaching, 26
Methods of Forming Instructional Theory, 27
Assessment, 27
Chalkboard or Marker Board, 28
Debate, 28
Demonstrations, 28
Discussion, 28
Educational Software and Computers, 28
Field Trips, 29
Video/CD-ROM/DVD, 29
Games, 29
Inquiry and Design, 29
Internet, 29
Laboratory Report, 30
Lecture and Direct Instruction, 30
Oral Reports, 30
Problem Solving, 30
Projects, 30
Multimedia Projects, 31
Questioning, 31
Reading, 31
Simulations, 31
Computer-Based Learning, 31
Probeware, 32
A Final Note, 32
Summary, 33
Chapter 3. Understanding Science and Scientific Inquiry, 39
What Is Science?, 39
Understanding Science, 40
Historical Perspectives and Scientific Inquiry, 40
Scientific Inquiry as Induction, 41
The Baconian Method of Scientific Inquiry, 41
Scientific Inquiry as Deduction, 44
Logical Positivism, 44
Values and Science, 45
Commitment to Paradigms, 45
Inquiry as Conjecture and Refutation, 46
Karl Popper’s Method, 46
Summary, 47
Chapter 4. Teaching Science as Inquiry, 50
Historical Perspectives and Teaching Science as Inquiry, 50
John Dewey and Scientific Habits of Mind, 50
Joseph J. Schwab, 52
F. James Rutherford and a Grounding in History and Philosophy, 53
Project Synthesis: Inquiry Is Espoused and Not Practiced, 53
Project 2061: A Frame for Teaching Science as Inquiry, 54
National Science Education Standards: Inquiry as Content, 55
Science as Inquiry: The Abilities, 55
Science as Inquiry: The Understandings, 56
National Science Education Standards: Inquiry as Teaching Strategies, 57
Science Teaching Standards, 57
What Should Science Teachers Know, Value, and Do?, 57
A Present-Day Perspective on Teaching Science as Inquiry, 58
Constructing a View of Inquiry, 58
Toward a Standards-Based Approach to Teaching Science as Inquiry, 58
The Essential Features of Inquiry, 60
Learner Engages in Scientifically Oriented Questions, 60
Learner Gives Priority to Evidence in Responding to Questions, 60
Learner Formulates Explanations from Evidence, 61
Learner Connects Explanations to Scientific Knowledge, 61
Learner Communicates and Justifies Explanations, 61
The Look of Inquiry, 62
Summary, 64
Unit 2. Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, 69
Chapter 5. Historical Perspectives on Science Education, 70
The First Two Centuries of Science Teaching, 70
The First Century: 1776–1875, An Age of National Development, 70
The Second Century: 1876–1976, An Age of Industrial Progress, 71
The Golden Age: Science Curriculum: 1958–1988, 73
Science Curriculum for the Junior High School, 73
Science Curriculum for the High School, 74
Common Elements of Golden Age Courses, 78
An Era of Educational Reform: Science Education in Secondary Schools: 1980–Future, 78
Reviewing the Goals of Science Education, 79
Science Education in Secondary Schools, 80
Trends in Secondary School Science, 83
Summary, 84
Chapter 6. Contemporary Issues in Science Education, 86
Scientific Literacy, 86
The Purpose of Science Education: Scientific Literacy, 86
The Domains of Scientific Literacy, 86
The Dimensions of Scientific Literacy, 91
Contemporary Issues in Science Education, 92
Background on National Standards, 92
The National Science Education Standards Project, 94
Contemporary Science Education, 94
National Science Education Standards: An Overview, 95
National Standards, Social Commitments, and Scientific Literacy, 97
No Child Left Behind: Federal Legislation Influencing Science Education, 98
Develop a Professional Development Plan, 99
Create Your Professional Development Plan, 99
National Assessment of Educational Progress: Science 2009, 99
Key Features of the NAEP Science Framework, 99
Content of the NAEP Science Framework, 100
Achievement Levels, 101
International Assessments, 101
TIMSS 2003: An Introduction and Overview, 101
How Did U.S. Fourth Graders Do?, 101
How Did U.S. Eighth Graders Do?, 102
How Did Different Groups of U.S. Fourth Graders Perform?, 102
How Did Different Groups of U.S. Eighth Graders Perform?, 102
PISA 2003: An Introduction and Overview, 102
How Did U.S. 15-Year-Olds Do?, 103
Are There Differences in How U.S. 15-Year-Olds Do?, 103
Summary, 104
Unit 3. Goals, Objectives, and Assessments, 105
Chapter 7. The Goals of Science Teaching, 106
Basic Goals of Science Education, 106
Science Education Goals and Programs: Prelude to Reform, 108
An Overview of Goals for Science Education, 108
Scientific Knowledge, 108
Scientific Method, 108
Societal Issues, 109
Personal Needs, 109
Career Awareness, 109
Science Education Goals for the Twenty-First Century: National Standards and Benchmarks, 109
Scientific Methods, 110
Scientific Knowledge, 110
Personal Needs and Societal Issues, 112
Career Awareness, 112
Summary, 113
Chapter 8. The Objectives of Science Teaching, 118
New Thrust in Teaching Objectives, 118
Objectives for Constructivist Teaching, 120
Selecting Objectives for Science Teaching, 121
Types of Objectives for Science Teaching, 121
Domains of Objectives for Science Teaching, 122
The Cognitive Domain, 122
The Affective Domain, 123
The Psychomotor Domain, 126
Preparing Objectives for Science Teaching, 128
Summary, 129
Chapter 9. Assessment of Student Learning, 132
Assessment Standards, 132
The Case for Strengthening Assessment in the Science Classroom, 133
Multiple Purposes of Assessment, 133
The Case for Formative Assessment, 134
The Case for Summative Assessment, 134
The Impact of High-Stakes Assessment, 134
Everyone Has a Role in Assessment, 135
The Teacher’s Role, 135
The Student’s Role, 135
The School’s Role, 135
An Overview of Assessment Techniques, 135
Forms of Assessment That Are Not Tests, 135
Concept Mapping, 135
Creative Assessment, 136
Journals and Oral Interviews, 136
Portfolios, 136
Practical Assessment, 136
General Guidelines for Using Tests, 137
Accounting for Student Individuality When Using Science Tests, 137
Problem Tests, 137
True-False Tests, 138
Selected-Response Tests, 138
Completion and Matching Tests, 138
Summary, 139
Unit 4. Understanding the Science Curriculum, 141
Chapter 10. How Science Curricula Are Developed, 142
Standards, the Science Curriculum, and Teaching, 142
The Power of Standards, 142
A Standards-Based Approach, 142
The Content of Standards, 143
Standards Are the Foundation, 143
Science Teaching in an Age of Diversity, 143
Designing Standards-Based Science Curricula, 144
Design Specifications: Student Learning, 144
Design Specifications: Science Content and Processes, 145
Design Specifications: Rigor, Focus, and Coherence of Science Content and Processes, 145
The Process of Curriculum Development, 146
Design Studies, 147
Backward Design, 147
Forward Development, 148
Teaching and the Science Curriculum, 148
Summary, 148
Chapter 11. Integrated Approaches to the Science Curriculum, 152
Why an Integrated Approach?, 152
Defining Integrated Science, 153
Completing the Definition: Models, Vehicles, and Grain Size of Integration, 154
Vehicles for Integration, 155
The Grain Size of Integrated Science, 155
Issues Associated with Integrated and Interdisciplinary Science, 156
History of Science and Technology in Science Classes, 157
Science and Mathematics, 157
Mathematics and Its Connections with Science Disciplines, 158
Simple Statistics, 159
Science and Reading, 159
Integrated Approaches to High School Science and Technology, 161
Summary, 163
Chapter 12. The Science Curriculum and Controversial Issues, 164
Ethics in the Science Classroom, 164
Ethical Analysis in the Science Classroom, 165
Ethical Development of Students, 166
Conflict Resolution in the Science Classroom, 166
Designing Controversies for the Science Classroom, 168
Other Strategies for Teaching About Controversial Issues, 168
Summary, 170
Unit 5. Planning Effective Science Teaching and Programs, 175
Chapter 13. Models for Effective Science Teaching, 176
Designing Your Instructional Sequence, 176
The Learning Cycle, 177
Cooperative Learning, 178
The 5E Instructional Model, 183
Form and Function, 183
A Constructivist Orientation, 183
The 5E Instructional Model: The Phases, 184
Summary, 187
Chapter 14. Planning for Effective Science Teaching, 190
Planning a Unit or Course of Study, 190
Elements and Strategies of Effective Science Teaching, 191
Before a Lesson, 191
Beginning a Lesson, 191
Middle of a Lesson, 192
Ending a Lesson or Unit, 192
After a Lesson or Unit, 192
Designing Programs, Units, and Lessons, 192
The Long-Range Plan: A Science Program, 192
Conceptual Structure of the Discipline, 193
Nature of Scientific Inquiry, 193
Science Topics, 193
Science-Related Social Issues, 193
The Middle-Range Plan: A Science Unit, 193
Checklist of Requirements for the Science Unit, 194
The Resource Unit, 196
The Short-Range Plan: The Science Lesson, 196
Summary, 201
Chapter 15. Designing an Effective School Science Program, 212
A Background on Curriculum Reform, 212
History of the Junior High, 212
Science Programs in Junior High Schools, 213
Emergence of Middle Schools, 213
High School Science Programs in Transition, 214
Standards and Frameworks for Science Programs, 214
Science for All Americans, 215
National Science Education Standards and Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 216
Considerations in the Design of School Science Programs, 216
Designing Your Science Program, 218
Step 1—Review Influences on the Science Program, 219
Step 2—Synthesize Goals into a Proposed Science Curriculum, 219
Step 3—Describe the Present Science Program, 220
Step 4—Analyze the Discrepancies Between the Proposed and Present Science Program, 220
Step 5—Evaluate the Proposed Science Program, 221
Step 6—Select and Implement the Science Program, 221
Step 7—Evaluate the Science Program, 221
Summary, 223
Unit 6. Strategies for Science Teaching, 227
Chapter 16. The Laboratory and Demonstrations, 228
The Laboratory and Science Teaching, 228
Traditional Laboratory Investigations, 228
Research on the Laboratory’s Role in Science Teaching, 229
Integrating Laboratories and Instructional Models, 229
Development of Skills and Abilities in the Laboratory, 230
Categories of Skills and Abilities, 231
Is There a Need for Science Development of Skills and Abilities?, 231
Development of Skills and Abilities Can Be Guided Through a Sequence of Activities, 231
Development of Skills and Abilities Enhances Concept Development, 232
Achievement of Skills and Abilities Can Be Tested, 232
Implications for the Development of Skills and Abilities in the Science Classroom, 232
Organizing Laboratory Work, 232
Orienting Students for Laboratory Work, 233
Laboratory Work as Part of Integrated Instructional Units, 233
Laboratory Work in the Middle School, 233
Safety Precautions in the Laboratory, 234
List of Safety Precautions in the Chemistry Laboratory, 235
Safety and the Law, 235
Demonstrations and Science Teaching, 235
Demonstration Versus Individual Experimentation, 236
Planning a Demonstration, 236
Giving a Demonstration, 237
Ways to Present a Demonstration, 237
Silent Demonstration, 237
Storage of Demonstration Equipment, 238
Stressing the Higher Levels of Learning, 238
Summary, 239
Chapter 17. Questioning and Discussion, 240
Questioning and Science Teaching, 240
Types of Questions, 240
Questions and Learning Outcomes, 240
Questions and Scientific Inquiry, 241
Convergent and Divergent Questions, 242
Teleological and Anthropomorphic Questions, 242
Questioning Procedures, 242
Wait Time Affects Quality of Responses, 242
Precautions in Questioning, 243
Research on Questioning in the Classroom, 244
Questioning in the Content Areas, 244
Gender Differences, 244
Levels of Questions, 245
Facilitating Discussions and Science Teaching, 245
Advantages of Discussion, 245
How to Lead a Discussion, 245
Spend Time Analyzing Thought Processes, 246
Questions Must Be Directed at the Students’ Level, 246
A Discussion Started in a Novel Way Gains Attention, 246
General Rules for Leading a Large Group Discussion, 246
Special Precautions in Leading a Discussion, 247
Special Discussion Techniques, 247
Invitations to Inquiry, 247
Pictorial Riddles, 248
Discussion as a Technique of Review, 249
Learning to Lead a Good Discussion Never Ends, 249
Using Textbooks and Science Teaching, 249
Using Textbooks Effectively, 250
Reading for Conceptual Change, 250
Over-Relying on Prior Knowledge and Distorting Text, 250
Over-Relying on Facts in the Text, 250
Over-Relying on Details in the Text—Separating Prior Knowledge and Text Knowledge, 250
Over-Relying on Prior Knowledge and Ignoring Text Knowledge, 251
Directing Students’ Attention to Important Concepts, 251
Challenging Students’ Thinking and Misconceptions, 251
Asking Students to Construct Explanations of Everyday Phenomena, 251
Probing Student Responses, 251
Providing Accurate Feedback to Students, 251
Constructing Alternative Representations of Textbook Explanations, 251
Selecting Activities That Create Conceptual Conflict and Encourage Conceptual Understanding, 252
Summary, 252
Chapter 18. Educational Technology in the Science Classroom, 262
Status of Computer and Internet Use in Schools, 263
Key Points (Based on Data Collected in 2005 from Public Schools), 263
Learning About, With, and Through Computers, 263
Computers and Learning, 264
Learning About Computers, 264
Learning With and Through Computers, 265
Roles of Educational Technology in the Classroom, 265
Computer-Assisted Instruction, 265
Drill and Practice, 265
Simulations and Tutorials, 266
Microcomputer-Based Laboratories, 266
Multimedia Presentations, 267
Student-Developed Multimedia Presentations, 267
Commercial Interactive Media Presentations, 267
Network Projects, 267
Continuing Technological Education for Science Teachers, 268
Science, Computing, and Equity, 269
The Future of Computer and Internet Use in Schools, 270
Summary, 270
Unit 7. Understanding Students, 273
Chapter 19. Individual Differences in Science Classrooms, 274
Exceptional Students in Education: A Rationale, 274
Exceptional Students in Science Programs: The Law, 274
Racial Inequities in Special Education, 276
Guidelines for Exceptional Students in Science Class, 276
General Guidelines for Helping Exceptional Students, 276
Auditorially Challenged Students, 277
Visually Challenged Students, 277
Physically Challenged Students, 278
Speech and Language Challenged Students, 278
Students with Learning Disabilities and Mild Mental Disabilities, 278
Emotionally Challenged Students, 279
Academically Unsuccessful Students, 279
Gifted and Talented Students in Science Class: Perspective and Resources, 281
Characteristics of the Gifted and Talented Student in Science Class, 281
Teaching Science for Individual Differences, 282
Grouping, 282
Continuous Progress, 283
Enrichment Programs, 283
Team Teaching, 283
Teaching Science for Individual Differences: Advantages and Disadvantages, 283
Staff, 283
Materials, 283
Summary, 283
Resources, 284
Chapter 20. Teaching Science for Differences: Gender and Cultural, 285
Teacher Bias, 285
What Is the Root of Teacher Bias?, 287
Student Bias, 287
Course Material Bias, 288
Parental Bias, 288
Adding Ethnicity and Culture to the Mix, 289
What Are the Implications for Curriculum and Instruction?, 290
Show Respect for Cultural Differences, 291
Consider the Cultural Resources of Your Students, 291
Use Understanding to Enhance Learning, 291
Make Decisions That Enhance Learning, 291
Provide Time, 291
Provide Positive Role Models, 291
Use Cooperative Groups, 291
Use Hands-On Investigations, 291
Provide Equal Opportunities and Expectations, 292
Use Appropriate Language, 292
Be Sensitive in Questioning, 292
Communicate with Parents, 292
Maintain High Expectations, 292
Summary, 292
Chapter 21. Classroom Management and Conflict Resolution, 293
Classroom Conflicts, 293
Causes of Conflicts, 295
The Middle School Student, 295
The Senior High School Student, 296
Discipline Problems and the Science Classroom, 297
Conflict Resolution and Regulation, 297
Avoiding Destructive Conflicts, 299
Encouraging Constructive Resolutions, 299
Regulating Classroom Conflicts, 299
Recommendations for Science Teachers, 300
Developing Self-Discipline, 300
Developing Techniques to Influence Behavior, 300
Developing Means to Resolve Classroom Conflicts, 300
Developing a Discipline Policy, 301
Meeting Parents to Solve a Discipline Problem, 301
Summary, 302
Unit 8. Student Teaching, 309
Chapter 22. Student Teaching and Becoming a Science Teacher, 310
Why Student Teach?, 310
Selecting Your Supervising Teacher, 311
Meeting Your Supervising Teacher, 312
Being a Student Teacher, 313
Your First Days in the Class, 313
Preparing to Teach a Lesson, 314
The First Day of Teaching, 314
Your Responsibilities, 315
Concerns of the Student Teacher, 315
Professional Development Standards, 316
Licensure Options, 316
Securing a Teaching Position, 316
Preparing to Look for a Job, 316
Using Placement Services, 317
Letters of Application, 317
The Job Interview, 318
After Obtaining the Job, 318
Making the Transition to a Professional Teacher, 318
Science-Teaching Standards, 321
Characteristics of a Good Science Teacher, 321
Question Checklist, 321
Stanford Teacher Competence Appraisal Guide, 322
Research on Science Teacher Characteristics, 322
Opportunities for Professional Growth, 324
Graduate Work, 324
Inservice Training and Institutes, 324
Improving Your Use of Educational Technology in the Classroom, 325
Committee Work, 325
Professional Organizations, 326
Becoming a Better Science Teacher, 326
Scientific Knowledge, 327
Planning and Organization, 327
Teaching Methods, 327
Interpersonal Relations, 329
Personal Enthusiasm, 329
Being a Person, Educator, and Science Teacher, 329
Summary, 330
References, 339
Name Index, 349
Subject Index, 353

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