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Research Essentials Foundations for Evidence-Based Practice
by
Susan L. Norwood, EdD, RN
Publisher: Prentice Hall
Publishing Date: 2009/07/21
eText ISBN-10
0-13-508585-3
eText ISBN-13
978-0-13-508585-1
Print ISBN-10
0-13-513410-2
Print ISBN-13
978-0-13-513410-8
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Research Essentials Foundations for Evidence-Based Practice
by
Susan L. Norwood, EdD, RN
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Copyright, ii
About the Author, v
Thank You, vi
Section 1. Nursing Resear...
Section 2. Understanding ...
Section 3. Putting It All...
Appendix A. Answers to Te...
Appendix B. Responses to ...
Appendix C. Glossary of A...
Glossary of Terms, 472
Index, 491
Table of Contents
Copyright, ii
About the Author, v
Thank You, vi
Section 1. Nursing Research: An Overview, 2
Chapter 1. Research and Contemporary Nursing, 2
Introduction, 3
Research as a Foundation for Decision Making, 4
Research and Its Characteristics, 4
Research Compared to Other Sources of Information, 6
Nursing Research, 9
The Evolution of Nursing Research, 10
Nursing Research and Evidence-Based Practice, 13
Research Opportunities for Nurses, 14
Research Competencies for Nurses, 16
Looking Ahead, 18
Chapter 2. The Research Process: An Overview, 23
Introduction, 24
Foundational Decisions and Elements, 25
Research Problems, 25
Research Purpose, 26
Research Sub-Problems, 26
Definitions of Key Terms, 27
Review of Relevant Literature, 27
Identification of an Organizing Framework, 28
Foundational Elements in Publications and Practice, 28
Methodological Decisions and Elements, 30
Research Approach, 30
Study Design, 30
Sampling Decisions, 31
Data Collection Decisions, 31
Quality Control Strategies, 31
Methodological Elements in Publications and Practice, 32
Analytic and Interpretive Decisions and Elements, 32
Data Analysis, 33
Discussion of Study Findings, 33
Analytic and Interpretive Elements in Publication and Practice, 33
Communication and Utilization Decisions, 34
Research Control, 35
The Concept of Control, 35
Extraneous Variables: The Target of Research Control, 36
The Concept of Validity, 36
Triangulation, 37
Reading Research Reports and Articles, 38
Chapter 3. Ways of Knowing for Nursing Research, 44
Introduction, 45
Paradigms for Nursing Research, 45
Positivism—The Paradigm of Quantitative Research, 46
Naturalism—The Paradigm of Qualitative Research, 48
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Approaches in Perspective, 55
Research Approach and Research Questions, 55
Research Approach and Study Methods, 56
Research Approach and Evidence-Based Practice, 56
Strengths and Limitations of Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 57
Combining Approaches, 58
Selecting the Approach for a Study, 59
Study Purpose, 59
Current Knowledge, 59
Practical Considerations, 59
Personal Preference, 60
Evaluating the Research Approach in a Published Research Report, 60
Chapter 4. Ethical Considerations in Nursing Research, 65
Introduction, 66
Historical Perspectives, 67
Ethical Principles for Research, 69
Beneficence, 70
Respect for Human Dignity, 73
Justice/Fair Treatment, 74
Ethical Challenges in Nursing and Healthcare Research, 76
Vulnerable Subjects, 76
Full Disclosure, 76
Inducements for Participation, 78
Informed Consent, 79
Privacy and HIPAA, 79
Research Sponsorship and Conflict of Interest, 80
Role Conflict—Nurse or Researcher?, 80
Informed Consent, 80
Elements of Informed Consent, 81
Informed Consent Procedures, 81
Working with Institutional Review Boards, 83
Purpose of an Institutional Review Board, 86
Institutional Review Board Procedures, 87
Scientific Misconduct in Research, 88
Scientific Misconduct During the Research Process, 88
Scientific Misconduct Related to Reporting Research Findings, 90
Detecting Scientific Misconduct, 90
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 91
Evaluating Published Research, 91
Section 2. Understanding Nursing Research, 98
Chapter 5. Study Foundations: The Research Problem, Purpose, Sub-Problems, and Variables, 98
Introduction, 99
Variables and Relationships in Research, 100
Independent and Dependent Variables, 101
Extraneous Variables, 102
Demographic Variables, 102
Mediating Variables and Covariates, 103
Conceptual and Operational Definitions of Variables, 103
Research Problems, 104
Sources for Research Problems, 105
Criteria for Research Problems, 106
Presentation of Research Problems, 108
The Research Purpose, 111
Presentation of a Study’s Purpose, 111
Research Sub-Problems, 114
Research Objectives and Questions, 114
Research Hypotheses, 116
Presentation of Research Sub-Problems, 119
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 121
Chapter 6. Study Backgrounds and Literature Reviews, 125
Introduction, 126
Written Literature Reviews, 127
The Literature Review in a Research Report, 128
Different Forms of Literature Reviews, 128
The Language of the Written Literature Review, 131
Uses of the Literature Review Process, 132
The Literature Review Process in Research, 133
Using Written Literature Reviews to Improve Practice, 136
Conducting a Literature Review, 136
Types of Literature, 136
The Importance of Planning, 137
Types of Information, 139
Getting Organized, 144
Locating the Literature, 145
Evaluating Literature Review Sources, 152
Remember to Stay Organized, 153
Evaluating an Information Source, 153
Writing a Literature Review, 155
Developing a Logically Organized Literature Review, 156
Elements of the Written Review, 157
Critiquing Your Work, 158
Chapter 7. Frameworks for Nursing Research, 163
Introduction, 164
The Language of Frameworks, 165
Concepts, 165
Theory, 166
Types of Theories, 168
Conceptual Models, 170
Schematic and Mathematical Models, 171
Frameworks and the Research Process, 173
Frameworks in Quantitative Research, 173
Frameworks and Qualitative Research, 177
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 179
Chapter 8. Research Designs, 184
Introduction, 185
Basic Principles of Research Design, 185
Understanding Research Designs, 185
Research Design, Control, and Validity, 190
Designs for Quantitative Research Studies, 197
Experimental Research Designs, 197
Non-Experimental Research Designs, 205
Research Design and Qualitative Research, 209
Research Designs and Evidence-Based Practice, 210
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 211
Selecting a Study Design, 212
Implementing a Study Design, 213
Evaluating a Study’s Design, 213
Chapter 9. Research Samples, 218
Introduction, 219
Basic Principles of Sampling, 219
The Purpose and Logic of Sampling, 220
Sampling and Research Control, 221
Ethical Considerations and Sampling, 227
Sampling in Quantitative Studies, 227
Purpose and Logic of Quantitative Sampling, 228
Sampling Strategies for Quantitative Research, 229
Sample Size Considerations in Quantitative Research, 235
Summary and Considerations, 238
Sampling in Qualitative Studies, 238
Purpose and Logic of Qualitative Sampling, 238
Sampling Strategies in Qualitative Research, 239
Sample Size Considerations in Qualitative Research, 240
Summary and Considerations, 241
Special Sampling Situations, 241
Observational Sampling, 242
Document Sampling, 242
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 243
Developing a Sampling Plan, 243
Recruiting and Retaining Study Participants, 243
Evaluating a Sampling Plan, 244
Chapter 10. Principles of Measurement, 249
Introduction, 250
Types of Measures, 250
Direct Measures, 251
Indirect Measures, 251
Levels of Measurement, 251
Quantitative Hierarchy of Measurement, 252
Level of Measurement and Qualitative Research, 253
Measurement Error, 254
Sources of Measurement Error, 255
Random Error, 255
Systematic Error, 256
Quality of Research Measures, 256
Objectivity, 256
Precision, 257
Accuracy, 257
Reliability, 257
Validity, 260
Measurement Quality and Qualitative Research, 264
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 266
Measurement Decisions, 266
Quality Control, 267
Evaluating Measurement Issues in Published Research Reports, 268
Chapter 11. Data Collection Strategies, 272
Introduction, 273
Questionnaires and Other Written Self-Report Strategies, 274
Alternative Approaches, 275
Strengths of Questionnaires, 282
Limitations of Questionnaires, 282
Best Practices, 283
Critique Guidelines, 283
Interviews, 284
Alternative Approaches, 284
Strengths of Interviews, 287
Limitations of Interviews, 287
Best Practices, 287
Critique Guidelines, 288
Observation, 288
Alternative Approaches, 289
Strengths of Observations, 290
Limitations of Observations, 291
Best Practices, 291
Critique Guidelines, 291
Biophysical and Technical Measures, 291
Alternative Approaches, 291
Strengths of Biophysical Measures, 293
Limitations of Biophysical Measures, 293
Best Practices, 293
Critique Guidelines, 293
Records and Other Existing Documents, 293
Alternative Approaches, 294
Strengths of Records and Documents, 295
Limitations of Records and Documents, 295
Best Practices, 295
Critique Guidelines, 296
Mixed Methods Research, 296
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 297
Project Development, 297
Data Collection, 299
Evaluating Published Research, 299
Chapter 12. Data Analysis in Quantitative Research, 304
Introduction, 305
Overview of the Quantitative Data Analysis Process, 306
Stage 1—Data Preparation, 306
Stage 2—Sample Description, 307
Stage 3—Preliminary Analyses, 307
Stage 4—Confirmatory Analyses, 308
Stage 5—Supplementary Analyses, 308
Descriptive Statistics, 308
Frequency Distributions, 308
Measures of Central Tendency, 312
Measures of Variability, 314
Measures of Relationships, 316
Inferential Statistics, 318
Underlying Concepts and Logic, 319
Common Inferential Statistical Procedures, 321
Multivariate Statistics, 327
Multi-Factor Analysis of Variance, 328
Analysis of Covariance, 328
Regression Analysis, 329
Understanding and Interpreting Statistical Outcomes, 329
Interpreting Inferential Statistics, 330
Statistical Versus Clinical Significance, 332
Reading Reports of Quantitative Analyses, 333
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 333
Chapter 13. Data Analysis and Qualitative Research, 340
Introduction, 341
Overview of the Qualitative Data Analysis Process, 343
In-Field Reflection, 343
Data Preparation, 344
Data Familiarization, 345
Searching for Themes and Patterns, 345
Interpreting and Attaching Meaning, 347
Content Analysis—The Core Activity of Qualitative Data Analysis, 347
Identifying Themes, 347
Naming Themes, 351
Developing a Category Scheme and Coding Data, 352
Identifying Variations and Patterns, 353
Validating Themes, 353
Quantifying Qualitative Data, 354
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 354
Section 3. Putting It All Together, 360
Chapter 14. The Research Critique Process, 360
Introduction, 361
Research Critiques and Evidence-Based Practice, 361
A Framework for Research Critique, 362
Stage One: Descriptive Review, 363
Stage Two: Critical Appraisal, 365
Stage Three: Synthesis and Judgment, 371
Stage Four: Communication, 376
Roles and Responsibilities for Nurses, 378
Chapter 15. Conducting Research in Practice Settings, 382
Introduction, 383
Types of Research for Practice-Based Projects, 383
A Process for Practice-Based Research, 387
Idea Development, 387
Project Development, 391
Project Implementation, 393
Resource Issues in Practice-Based Research, 397
Funding Practice-Based Research, 398
Strategies for Success, 399
Packaging, 399
Be Flexible, 402
Invite Others to Participate, 402
Go Public, 402
Chapter 16. Communicating Research Findings, 406
Introduction, 407
Getting Started, 407
Decisions and Options, 408
Authorship Issues, 410
Project Planning, 411
Publishing Study Findings, 413
Options, 413
Sending a Query Letter, 414
Writing the Article, 414
Preparing the Manuscript, 416
Presenting Study Findings, 417
Podium Presentations, 418
Poster Presentations, 419
Strategies for Success, 422
Chapter 17. Using Research Findings in Practice Settings, 426
Introduction, 427
Research Utilization and Evidence-Based Practice, 427
The Research Utilization Continuum, 429
Instrumental Utilization, 429
Conceptual Utilization, 430
Symbolic Utilization, 430
Models and Frameworks for Research Utilization, 431
Rogers’ Theory of Diffusion of Innovations, 431
The Stetler Model of Research Utilization, 432
The Iowa Model, 433
A Systematic Approach to Research Utilization, 434
Problem Identification and Clarification, 434
Evidence Evaluation and Synthesis, 435
Action Planning and Innovation Implementation, 437
Evaluation, 439
Creating a Culture of Research Utilization, 440
Research Utilization Barriers and Facilitators, 440
Strategies for Success, 440
Chapter 18. Nursing Research and Nursing Practice, 445
Introduction, 446
The Research-Practice Cycle, 446
Research-Related Roles, Responsibilities, and Opportunities, 447
Strategies for Success, 449
Change Theory for Creating a Research Culture, 450
Appendix A. Answers to Test Yourself Questions, 455
Appendix B. Responses to Critical Thinking Questions, 465
Appendix C. Glossary of Abbreviations, 471
Glossary of Terms, 472
Index, 491
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