CourseSmart Reader

The Philosopher’s Way: Thinking Critically About Profound Ideas, Second Edition

by John Chaffee

Publisher: Prentice Hall

Publishing Date: 2008/01/28

eText ISBN-10

0-13-603216-8

eText ISBN-13

978-0-13-603216-8

Print ISBN-10

0-13-614138-2

Print ISBN-13

978-0-13-614138-9

Table of Contents

Resources for Teaching and Learning with The Philosopher’s Way, xvii

About the Author, xxv

1. What is Philosophy? Thinking Philosophically About Life, 2

1.1 Why Study Philosophy?, 4

1.2 Defining Philosophy, 6

Philosophy Is the Pursuit of Wisdom, 6

Philosophy Begins with Wonder, 8

Philosophy Is a Dynamic Process, 8

The Ultimate Aim of Philosophy, 9

1.3 Thinking Philosophically: Becoming a Critical Thinker, 10

Thinking Philosophically: What Is Your Philosophy of Life?, 12

Qualities of a Critical Thinker, 12

The Process of Critical Thinking, 13

Thinking Philosophically: Who are Your Models of Critical Thinking?, 13

Thinking Philosophically: Applying the Critical Thinking Model, 17

1.4 Understanding Arguments, 17

The Structure of Arguments, 18

Evaluating Arguments, 20

Deductive Arguments, 21

Inductive Arguments, 22

Informal Fallacies, 23

Thinking Philosophically: Evaluating Arguments, 26

1.5 Branches of Philosophy, 26

Metaphysics, 27

Thinking Philosophically: Are You Willing to Question Your Beliefs?, 29

Epistemology, 30

Thinking Philosophically: How Do You Know What Is True?, 30

Political and Social Philosophy, 32

Thinking Philosophically: Do You Have a Moral Philosophy?, 32

1.6 Reading Critically: Working with Primary Sources, 33

Bertrand Russell, from The Value of Philosophy, 34

Reading Critically: Analyzing Russell on the Value of Philosophy, 36

1.7 Making Connections: The Search for a Meaningful Life, 37

Thinking Philosophically: What Do You Hope to Learn?, 40

Chapter Review, 40

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 41

2. What is The Philosopher’s Way? Socrates and the Examined Life, 42

2.1 Socrates: A Model for Humanity, 44

A Man of Greece, 44

A Midwife of Ideas, 46

The Wisest of Men?, 48

Plato, from The Apology, 49

Reading Critically: Analyzing Socrates on Wisdom and Humility, 50

2.2 The Socratic Method, 51

Plato, from The Republic, 52

Reading Critically: Analyzing a Socratic Dialogue, 58

2.3 Socrates’ Central Concern: The Soul, 58

Plato, from The Apology, 59

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Core Teachings of Socrates, 63

2.4 The Trial and Death of Socrates, 63

Plato, from The Apology, 64

Thinking Philosophically: Countering Personal Attacks, 66

Reading Critically: Analyzing Socrates on Trial, 76

2.5 Making Connections: Socrates’ Legacy, 85

Thinking Philosophically: Is Socrates Relevant Today?, 86

Chapter Review, 87

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 87

Writing About Philosophy: A Socratic Dialogue, 88

3. Who are You? Consciousness, Identity, and the Soul, 92

3.1 Know Thyself?, 94

Thinking Philosophically: Do You Know Yourself?, 95

3.2 The Soul Is Immortal: From Socrates and Plato to Augustine, 95

Plato, from Phaedo, 96

Reading Critically: Analyzing Socrates on the Self, 99

Plato, from Phaedrus, The Chariot Analogy, 100

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Chariot Analogy, 102

A Feminist Critique of Plato’s View of the Self, 103

Elizabeth V. Spelman, from Woman as Body, 103

Reading Critically: Analyzing Spelman’s Critique of Plato, 105

St. Augustine’s Synthesis of Plato and Christianity, 105

Thinking Philosophically: Do You Believe in an Immortal Soul?, 106

3.3 Descartes’ Modern Perspective on the Self, 107

René Descartes, from Meditations on First Philosophy, 108

Thinking Philosophically: Are You a Seeker After Truth?, 111

Reading Critically: Analyzing Descartes on the Mind/Body Problem, 115

3.4 The Self Is Consciousness: Locke, 115

John Locke, from On Personal Identity, 116

Thinking Philosophically: Applying Locke’s Ideas, 117

Reading Critically: Analyzing Locke on the Conscious Self, 121

3.5 There Is No Self: Hume, 122

David Hume, from On Personal Identity, 122

Reading Critically: Analyzing Hume on the Absence of Self, 125

3.6 We Construct the Self: Kant, 125

Immanuel Kant, from Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics, 126

Immanuel Kant, from Critique of Pure Reason, 128

Thinking Philosophically: Sense, Perception, and Your Self, 129

Reading Critically: Analyzing Kant’s Unity of Consciousness, 131

3.7 The Self Is Multilayered: Freud, 131

Sigmund Freud, from An Outline of Psychoanalysis, 131

Thinking Philosophically: Looking for Evidence of Your Unconscious, 134

Reading Critically: Analyzing Freud’s Ideas about Mind, 136

3.8 The Self Is Embodied Subjectivity: Husserl and Merleau-Ponty, 136

Marcel Proust, from In Search of Lost Time and Within a Budding Grave, 140

Thinking Philosophically: Applying Phenomenology, 140

3.9 The Self Is the Brain: Materialism, 141

Paul Churchland, from On Eliminative Materialism, 142

Reading Critically: Analyzing Churchland’s Materialism, 145

3.10 Buddhist Concepts of the Self, 146

Milindapanha, “The Simile of the Chariot”, 147

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Buddhist Chariot Analogy, 148

3.11 Making Connections: In Search of the Self, 148

Thinking Philosophically: What Is Your Concept of the Self?, 149

Chapter Review, 150

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 151

Writing About Philosophy: Defining the Self, 152

4. Are You Free? Freedom and Determinism, 156

4.1 Are You the Master of Your Fate?, 158

Thinking Philosophically: What are Your Assumptions About Freedom?, 161

4.2 Determinism, 162

Baron d’Holbach, from The System of Nature, 165

Thinking Philosophically: Do You Choose Freely?, 171

Reading Critically: Analyzing d’Holbach on the Illusion of Freedom, 172

4.3 Compatibilism, 172

External Constraints May Limit Freedom: Stace, 173

W.T. Stace, from Religion and the Modern Mind, 174

Internal Constraints May Also Limit Freedom: Schlick, 179

Free Will Is a Human Creation: Dennett, 181

Reading Critically: Evaluating Compatibilism, 182

4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism, 182

We Live in a World of Possibilities: James, 183

William James, from The Will to Believe, 184

Reading Critically: Analyzing James on Free Will, 195

We Create Ourselves Through Our Choices: Sartre, 195

Jean-Paul Sartre, from Existentialism Is a Humanism, 196

Reading Critically: Analyzing Sartre on Freedom, Choice, and Responsibility, 206

4.5 A Feminist Analysis of Freedom, 207

Jean Grimshaw, from Autonomy and Identity in Feminist Thinking, 207

Reading Critically: Analyzing Grimshaw on Autonomy, 211

4.6 Making Connections: Creating a Synthesis, 212

Overcoming Limitations to Your Freedom, 213

Confronting External Constraints, 214

Confronting Internal Constraints, 215

Thinking Philosophically: What are the Limitations to Your Freedom?, 217

Chapter Review, 218

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 219

5. How Can We Know the Nature of Reality?: Philosophical Foundations, 220

5.1 What Is the Nature of Reality?, 222

Thinking Philosophically: What Is Your Concept of Reality?, 225

5.2 Reality Is the Eternal Realm of the Forms: Plato, 225

The Divided Line, 227

The Theory of Innate Ideas, 229

Plato, from Meno, 230

Reading Critically: Analyzing Plato’s Theory of Innate Ideas, 231

The Path to Knowledge of Reality: The Cave Allegory, 232

Plato, from The Republic, 232

Reading Critically: Analyzing Plato’s Allegory of the Cave, 236

5.3 Reality Is the Natural World: Aristotle, 236

Aristotle’s Two Categories: Matter and Form, 237

The Four Causes, 239

Aristotle, from Metaphysics, 240

Reading Critically: Analyzing Aristotle’s Concept of Reality, 242

5.4 Can Reality Be Known? Descartes, 242

René Descartes, from Meditations on First Philosophy, 243

Reading Critically: Analyzing Descartes’ Radical Doubt, 256

5.5 Making Connections: Your Beliefs About the World, 256

Thinking Philosophically: Evaluating the Accuracy of Your Beliefs, 260

Chapter Review, 260

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 261

Writing About Philosophy: Analyzing Philosophical Themes in a Fictional Work, 262

6. What is Real? What is True? Further Explorations, 266

6.1 Questioning Independent Reality, 268

Bertrand Russell, from Appearance and Reality, 269

Reading Critically: How Do You Know What Is “Real”?, 274

6.2 All Knowledge Comes from Experience: Locke, 274

Locke’s Critique of “Universality”, 275

John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 275

Leibniz’s Case Against Locke, 277

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, from New Essays Concerning Human Understanding, 277

Locke’s Causal Theory of Perception, 280

John Locke, from An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 280

Reading Critically: Analyzing Locke’s Empirical View, 287

6.3 Reality Depends on Perception: Berkeley, 288

George Berkeley, from A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, 289

Reading Critically: Analyzing Berkeley’s Subjective Idealism, 293

6.4 Independent Reality Is an Illusion: Hume, 294

David Hume, from An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 295

Reading Critically: Analyzing Hume’s Case for Skepticism, 304

6.5 We Constitute Our World: Kant, 305

Immanuel Kant, from Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics, 306

Hume’s Challenge to Philosophy, 307

Kant’s Solution: Transcendental Idealism, 310

Immanuel Kant, from Future Metaphysics and Critique of Pure Reason, 315

Two Realities: Phenomenal and Noumenal, 321

Immanuel Kant, from Critique of Pure Reason, 322

Reading Critically: Analyzing Kant’s Synthesizing Project, 323

Applying Kant’s Theory, 323

Three Accounts of the Assassination of Malcolm X, 324

Reading Critically: How Is Knowledge Constructed?, 326

6.6 Emotions Shape Our Understanding: Jaggar, 326

Allison Jaggar, from Love and Knowledge: Emotion in Feminist Epistemology, 327

Reading Critically: Analyzing Jaggar on the Role of Emotions, 336

6.7 Making Connections: Developing Informed Beliefs, 336

Thinking Philosophically: What are the Limits to Your Knowledge?, 338

Chapter Review, 339

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 340

7. Is There a Spiritual Reality? Exploring the Philosophy of Religion, 342

7.1 Thinking Philosophically about Religious Beliefs, 344

Thinking Philosophically: What are Your Religious Beliefs?, 345

7.2 What Is Religion?, 347

Ways of Defining Religion, 347

Frederick Streng, from What Is Religion?, 348

Reading Critically: Analyzing Streng on Definitions of Religion, 352

God Is a Human Projection: Feuerbach, 353

Ludwig Feuerbach, from The Essence of Christianity, 353

Reading Critically: Analyzing Feuerbach on Religion as Anthropomorphism, 356

Religion Is an Opiate: Marx, 356

Karl Marx, from “Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right”, 357

Reading Critically: Analyzing Marx on Religion as an Illusion, 358

Religion Reflects Patriarchy: Daly, 358

Mary Daly, from “The Qualitative Leap Beyond Patriarchal Religion”, 359

Reading Critically: Analyzing Daly on Patriarchal Religion, 360

Religion Is a Vital Quest: Nishitani, 361

Keiji Nishitani, from Religion and Nothingness, 361

Reading Critically: Analyzing Nishitani on the Religious Quest, 365

7.3 The Question of Religious Diversity, 365

A Brief Survey of Major Religions, 366

Thinking Philosophically: Expanding Your Religious Understanding, 374

Must There Be One True Religion?, 374

John Hick, from “Religious Pluralism and Salvation”, 375

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Argument for Religious Plurality, 378

7.4 Does God Exist?, 378

The Ontological Argument, 379

St. Anselm and Gaunilo, The Ontological Argument, 379

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Ontological Argument, 382

The Cosmological Argument, 382

St. Thomas Aquinas, from Summa Theologica, 383

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Cosmological Argument, 385

The Argument from Gradations of Perfection, 385

The Argument from Design, 386

William Paley, from Natural Theology, 386

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Argument from Design, 387

The Argument from Morality, 388

Immanuel Kant, from Critique of Practical Reason, 389

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Argument from Morality, 391

7.5 The Problem of Evil, 391

John Hick, from Philosophy of Religion, 392

Reading Critically: Analyzing Hick on the Problem of Evil, 396

7.6 Faith and Religious Experience, 397

Subjective Knowing: The Leap of Faith, 398

Søren Kierkegaard, from “The Leap of Faith and the Limits of Reason” and Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 398

Reading Critically: Analyzing Kierkegaard on Faith and Reason, 400

Mystical States of Consciousness, 401

William James, from The Varieties of Religious Experience, 402

Reading Critically: Analyzing James on Mysticism, 405

7.7 Making Connections: Reflections on the Philosophy of Religion, 406

Chapter Review, 407

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 408

8. Are There Moral Truths? Thinking About Ethics, 410

8.1 Your Moral Compass, 412

Ethics and Values, 413

Thinking Philosophically: What are Your Moral Values?, 415

Thinking Critically About Ethics, 416

Thinking Philosophically: Making Moral Decisions, 417

8.2 Ethical Relativism, 420

Ethical Subjectivism: Each Person Decides What Is Morally Right, 420

Thinking Philosophically: How Subjective are Your Ethics?, 424

Cultural Relativism: Each Culture Determines What Is Morally Right, 425

Ruth Benedict, from “Anthropology and the Abnormal”, 426

Thinking Philosophically: Cultural Relativism and Your Moral Perspective, 429

Reading Critically: Analyzing Benedict on Culture and Values, 430

8.3 Ethical Absolutism: Some Moral Values are Universal, 430

Thinking Philosophically: Do You Believe in Universal Values?, 431

W.T . Stace, from The Concept of Morals, 431

Reading Critically: Analyzing Stace’s Critique of Ethical Relativism, 440

8.4 Egoism as a Universal Principle, 440

Arguments for Egoism, 440

Plato, from The Republic, The Myth of Gyges, 441

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Myth of Gyges, 443

Ayn Rand, from The Virtue of Selfishness, 444

Reading Critically: Analyzing Rand on the Virtue of Selfishness, 447

Arguments against Egoism, 447

James Rachels, from “Egoism and Moral Skepticism”, 448

Reading Critically: Analyzing Rachels’ Critique of Egoism, 454

8.5 Religion and Universal Values, 454

Divine Command Theory, 455

Thinking Philosophically: Religion and Your Ethical Values, 455

The Story of Abraham and Isaac, from The Bible, 456

Natural Law Theory, 457

Thinking Philosophically: Do You Believe in Natural Laws?, 459

Martin Luther King, Jr., from Letter from a Birmingham Jail, 460

Reading Critically: Analyzing King on Universal Values, 462

8.6 Making Connections: On Becoming an Ethical Person, 462

Robert Coles, The Disparity Between Intellect and Character, 463

Thinking Philosophically: Can Morality Be Learned in College?, 465

Chapter Review, 466

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 467

Writing About Philosophy: Moral Issues in Multiculturalism, 468

9. What are Right Actions? Constructing an Ethical Theory, 472

9.1 Expanding Your Knowledge of Moral Philosophy, 474

9.2 Character: Virtue Ethics, 474

Thinking Philosophically: What Is Your Moral Character?, 475

Aristotle, from The Nicomachean Ethics, 475

Reading Critically: Analyzing Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics, 486

9.3 Maxims: Duty to Moral Laws, 486

Immanuel Kant, from Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals, 488

Thinking Philosophically: The Categorical Imperative and Your Moral Compass, 493

Reading Critically: Analyzing Kant on Duty and Reason, 499

9.4 Consequences: Utilitarianism, 500

The Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number: Bentham, 501

Jeremy Bentham, from An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, 502

Thinking Philosophically: Applying the Hedonistic Calculus, 507

Higher Pleasures Have Greater Worth: Mill, 509

John Stuart Mill, from Utilitarianism, 510

Reading Critically: Analyzing Utilitarianism, 513

Consider the Interests of Animals: Singer, 513

Peter Singer, from Animal Liberation, 513

Reading Critically: Analyzing Singer on Animal Rights, 518

9.5 Authenticity: Existentialist Ethics, 518

“The Crowd Is Untruth”: Kierkegaard, 519

Søren Kierkegaard, from On the Dedication to ‘That Single Individual’ and The Present Age, 520

Reading Critically: Analyzing Kierkegaard on Authenticity, 525

Beyond Good and Evil: Nietzsche, 526

Friedrich Nietzsche, from The Gay Science and Beyond Good and Evil, 527

Reading Critically: Analyzing Nietzsche on Morality, 530

Authenticity and Ethical Responsibility: Sartre, 531

Jean-Paul Sartre, from Existentialism Is a Humanism, 531

Reading Critically: Analyzing Sartre on Moral Responsibility, 536

Our Interplay with Others Defines Us: de Beauvoir, 537

Simone de Beauvoir, from Ethics of Ambiguity, 537

Reading Critically: Analyzing de Beauvoir on Moral Choices, 539

Courage Is the Highest Value: Camus, 539

Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus, 539

Reading Critically: Analyzing the Myth of Sisyphus, 542

9.6 Empathy: The Ethics of Care, 542

Nel Noddings, from Caring: A Feminist Approach to Ethics and Moral Education, 543

Reading Critically: Analyzing Noddings on the Ethics of Care, 547

9.7 Making Connections: Your Moral Compass Revisited, 547

Thinking Philosophically: Constructing an Ethical Theory, 548

Chapter Review, 549

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 551

10. What is Social Justice? Creating a Just State, 552

10.1 Elements of a Just Society, 554

Thinking Philosophically: Examining Our Society, 556

10.2 Classical Theories of Society: Confucius, Plato, and Aristotle, 556

Society Should Be Based on Virtue: Confucius, 557

Reading Critically: Analyzing Confucius on the Social Order, 559

Society Should Be Based on Function and Harmony: Plato, 559

Plato, from The Republic, 561

Reading Critically: Analyzing Plato on Social Harmony, 563

Society Is the Natural State of Man: Aristotle, 564

Aristotle, from Politics, 564

Reading Critically: Analyzing Aristotle on Community, 566

10.3 Justice Depends on a Social Contract: From Hobbes and Locke to Rawls, 567

We Need a Social Contract to Co-Exist: Hobbes, 568

Thomas Hobbes, from Leviathan, 568

Reading Critically: Analyzing Hobbes on the Social Contract, 573

The Social Contract Protects Natural Rights: Locke, 574

John Locke, from The Second Treatise of Civil Government, 574

Thomas Jefferson, from The Declaration of Independence, 580

Reading Critically: Analyzing Locke on Natural Rights, 581

The State of Nature: Assumptions and Questions, 581

The State of Nature Is a Conceptual Tool: Rawls, 583

Thinking Philosophically: Creating a Just Society, 585

John Rawls, from A Theory of Justice, 586

Reading Critically: Analyzing Rawls on Justice and Equality, 588

10.4 Justice Is Based on Need and Ability: Marx and Engels, 588

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, from Manifesto of the Communist Party, 590

Reading Critically: Analyzing Marx and Engels on Social Justice, 599

10.5 Justice Is What Promotes the General Welfare: Mill, 599

Thinking Philosophically: Analyzing Mill’s Concept of Justice, 601

John Stuart Mill, from On Liberty, 602

Reading Critically: Analyzing Mill on Liberty, 608

10.6 Justice Is What Promotes Gender Equality: Okin, 608

Susan Moller Okin, from Justice, Gender, and the Family, 609

Reading Critically: Analyzing Okin on Gender Equality, 619

10.7 Making Connections: An Ideal Society, 619

Thinking Philosophically: Your Ideal Society, 620

Chapter Review, 621

For Further Reading, Viewing, and Research, 623

Writing About Philosophy: Your Ideal Society, 624

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