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Copyright, iv
Preface, xiv
1. An Introduction to Geology, xviii
, 1
The Science of Geology, 2
Geology, People, and the Environment, 3
Historical Notes about Geology, 4
Catastrophism, 4
The Birth of Modern Geology, 5
Geology Today, 5
Geologic Time, 6
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry, 9
Hypothesis, 9
Theory, 10
Scientific Methods, 10
Do Glaciers Move? An Application of the Scientific Method, 11
Earth’s Spheres, 12
Hydrosphere, 13
Atmosphere, 13
Biosphere, 13
Geosphere, 14
Earth as a System, 14
Earth System Science, 14
The Earth System, 15
The Rock Cycle: One of Earth’s Subsystems, 17
The Basic Cycle, 19
Alternative Paths, 19
Early Evolution of Earth, 19
Origin of Planet Earth, 19
Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure, 21
Earth’s Internal Structure, 21
Earth’s Crust, 22
Earth’s Mantle, 22
Earth’s Core, 23
The Face of Earth, 23
Major Features of the Continents, 23
Major Features of the Ocean Basins, 25
Dynamic Earth, 27
The Theory of Plate Tectonics, 27
Plate Boundaries, 28
The Chapter in Review, 31
Key Terms, 32
Questions for Review, 33
Companion Website, 33
2. Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks, 34
Minerals: Building Blocks of Rocks, 36
Elements: Building Blocks of Minerals, 38
Atoms, 38
Why Atoms Bond, 39
Ionic Bonds: Electrons Transferred, 40
Covalent Bonds: Electrons Shared, 40
Other Bonds, 41
Isotopes and Radioactive Decay, 41
Properties of Minerals, 41
Optical Properties, 42
Crystal Shape or Habit, 42
Mineral Strength, 43
Density and Specific Gravity, 45
Other Properties of Minerals, 45
Mineral Groups, 46
The Silicates, 46
The Silicon–Oxygen Tetrahedron, 46
Joining Silicate Structures, 47
Common Silicate Minerals, 49
The Light Silicates, 49
The Dark Silicates, 51
Important Nonsilicate Minerals, 52
Mineral Resources, 53
The Chapter in Review, 55
Key Terms, 56
Questions for Review, 56
Companion Website, 57
3. Igneous Rocks, 58
Magma: The Parent Material of Igneous Rock, 60
The Nature of Magma, 60
From Magma to Crystalline Rock, 61
Igneous Textures, 62
Factors Affecting Crystal Size, 62
Types of Igneous Textures, 62
Igneous Compositions, 65
Granitic (Felsic) versus Basaltic (Mafic) Compositions, 65
Other Compositional Groups, 66
Silica Content as an Indicator of Composition, 66
Naming Igneous Rocks, 67
Felsic (Granitic) Igneous Rocks, 68
Intermediate (Andesitic) Igneous Rocks, 69
Mafic (Basaltic) Igneous Rocks, 70
Pyroclastic Rocks, 70
Origin of Magma, 70
Generating Magma from Solid Rock, 71
How Magmas Evolve, 72
Bowen’s Reaction Series and the Composition of Igneous Rocks, 72
Magmatic Differentiation, 73
Assimilation and Magma Mixing, 74
Partial Melting and Magma Composition, 74
Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes, 76
The Chapter in Review, 78
Key Terms, 79
Questions for Review, 79
Companion Website, 79
4. Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity, 80
Mount St. Helens versus Kilauea, 82
The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions, 83
Factors Affecting Viscosity, 83
Why Do Volcanoes Erupt?, 84
Materials Extruded During an Eruption, 85
Lava Flows, 85
Gasses, 87
Pyroclastic Materials, 88
Volcanic Structures and Eruptive Styles, 89
Anatomy of a Volcano, 89
Shield Volcanoes, 90
Cinder Cones, 92
Composite Cones, 93
Living in the Shadow of a Composite Cone, 94
Eruption of Vesuvius A.D. 79, 94
Nuée Ardente: A Deadly Pyroclastic Flow, 95
Lahars: Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones, 96
Other Volcanic Landforms, 96
Calderas, 96
Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus, 98
Lava Domes, 98
Volcanic Pipes and Necks, 99
Intrusive Igneous Activity, 100
Nature of Plutons, 100
Dikes, 100
Sills and Laccoliths, 101
Batholiths, 102
Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity, 103
Igneous Activity at Convergent Plate Boundaries, 106
Igneous Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries, 106
Intraplate Igneous Activity, 107
Can Volcanoes Change Earth’s Climate?, 108
The Basic Premise, 108
Three Modern Examples, 108
The Chapter in Review, 109
Key Terms, 110
Questions for Review, 110
Companion Website, 111
5. Weathering and Soils, 112
Earth’s External Processes, 114
Weathering, 115
Mechanical Weathering, 115
Frost Wedging, 116
Salt Crystal Growth, 116
Unloading, 116
Biological Activity, 117
Chemical Weathering, 118
Water and Carbonic Acid, 118
How Granite Weathers, 118
Weathering of Silicate Minerals, 119
Spheroidal Weathering, 120
Rates of Weathering, 120
Rock Characteristics, 121
Climate, 121
Differential Weathering, 121
Soil, 122
An Interface in the Earth System, 122
What Is Soil?, 123
Controls of Soil Formation, 123
Parent Material, 124
Time, 124
Climate, 124
Plants and Animals, 124
Topography, 125
The Soil Profile, 126
Classifying Soils, 127
Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest—A Case Study of Human Impact on Soil, 128
Soil Erosion, 130
How Soil Is Eroded, 130
Rates of Erosion, 131
Sedimentation and Chemical Pollution, 131
Weathering and Ore Deposits, 132
Bauxite, 132
Other Deposits, 132
The Chapter in Review, 133
Key Terms, 134
Questions for Review, 135
Companion Website, 135
6. Sedimentary Rocks, 136
The Importance of Sedimentary Rocks, 138
Origins of Sedimentary Rock, 138
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks, 139
Shale, 140
Sandstone, 141
Conglomerate and Breccia, 143
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks, 144
Limestone, 144
Dolostone, 146
Chert, 147
Evaporites, 148
Coal—an Organic Sedimentary Rock, 148
Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock: Diagenesis and Lithification, 149
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks, 150
Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments, 151
Sedimentary Structures, 154
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources from Sedimentary Rocks, 156
Energy Resources from Sedimentary Rocks, 157
Coal, 157
Oil and Natural Gas, 158
The Carbon Cycle and Sedimentary Rocks, 158
The Chapter in Review, 159
Key Terms, 160
Questions for Review, 161
Companion Website, 161
7. Metamorphic Rocks, 162
Metamorphism, 164
What Drives Metamorphism?, 164
Heat as a Metamorphic Agent, 164
Confining Pressure and Differential Stress, 166
Chemically Active Fluids, 167
Metamorphic Textures, 167
Foliation, 167
Foliated Textures, 168
Other Metamorphic Textures, 170
Common Metamorphic Rocks, 170
Foliated Rocks, 170
Nonfoliated Rocks, 172
Metamorphic Environments, 173
Contact or Thermal Metamorphism, 173
Hydrothermal Metamorphism, 174
Burial and Subduction Zone Metamorphism, 174
Regional Metamorphism, 175
Other Metamorphic Environments, 176
Metamorphic Zones, 177
Textural Variations, 177
Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade, 178
The Chapter in Review, 179
Key Terms, 180
Questions for Review, 180
Companion Website, 181
8. Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity, 182
Landslides as Natural Disasters, 184
Mass Wasting and Landform Development, 184
The Role of Mass Wasting, 185
Slopes Change through Time, 185
Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting, 185
The Role of Water, 186
Oversteepened Slopes, 187
Removal of Vegetation, 187
Earthquakes as Triggers, 188
Case Study: Landslide Hazards at La Conchita, California, 189
Landslides without Triggers?, 190
Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes, 190
Type of Material, 190
Type of Motion, 191
Rate of Movement, 191
Slump, 192
Rockslide, 192
Debris Flow, 193
Debris Flows in Semiarid Regions, 194
Lahars, 194
Earthflow, 194
Slow Movements, 195
Creep, 195
Solifluction, 195
The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape, 196
The Chapter in Review, 197
Key Terms, 197
Questions for Review, 197
Companion Website, 197
9. Running Water, 198
Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle, 200
Running Water, 202
Drainage Basins, 202
River Systems, 202
Streamflow, 203
Gradient and Channel Characteristics, 204
Discharge, 204
Changes from Upstream to Downstream, 205
The Work of Running Water, 206
Erosion, 206
Transportation, 206
Deposition, 208
Stream Channels, 208
Bedrock Channels, 208
Alluvial Channels, 208
Base Level and Stream Erosion, 210
Shaping Stream Valleys, 211
Valley Deepening, 211
Valley Widening, 212
Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces, 212
Depositional Landforms, 213
Deltas, 213
Case Study: Coastal Wetlands Are Vanishing on the Mississippi Delta, 214
Natural Levees, 215
Alluvial Fans, 215
Drainage Patterns, 216
Floods and Flood Control, 216
Causes and Types of Floods, 216
Flood Control, 218
The Chapter in Review, 219
Key Terms, 220
Questions for Review, 220
Companion Website, 221
10. Groundwater, 222
Importance of Groundwater, 224
Distribution of Groundwater, 225
The Water Table, 226
Variations in the Water Table, 226
Interaction between Groundwater and Streams, 226
Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater, 227
Porosity, 227
Permeability, Aquitards, and Aquifers, 228
How Groundwater Moves, 228
A Simple Groundwater Flow System, 228
Measuring Groundwater Movement, 229
Springs, 229
Wells, 230
Artesian Wells, 231
Environmental Problems Associated with Groundwater, 232
Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource, 232
Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal, 233
Groundwater Contamination, 233
Hot Springs and Geysers, 235
Geothermal Energy, 236
The Geologic Work of Groundwater, 238
Caverns, 238
Karst Topography, 240
The Chapter in Review, 242
Key Terms, 242
Questions for Review, 243
Companion Website, 243
11. Glaciers and Glaciation, 244
Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles, 246
Valley (Alpine) Glaciers, 247
Ice Sheets, 247
Other Types of Glaciers, 248
Formation and Movement of Glacial Ice, 248
Glacial Ice Formation, 249
How Glaciers Move, 249
Rates of Glacial Movement, 250
Budget of a Glacier, 250
Glacial Erosion, 252
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion, 254
Glaciated Valleys, 255
Arêtes and Horns, 256
Roches Moutonnées, 256
Glacial Deposits, 257
Types of Glacial Drift, 257
Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles, 257
Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames, 260
Other Effects of Ice Age Glaciers, 261
Crustal Subsidence and Rebound, 261
Sea-Level Changes, 261
Rivers Before and After the Ice Age, 262
Ice Dams Create Proglacial Lakes, 262
Pluvial Lakes, 263
Glaciers of the Ice Age, 263
Causes of Glaciation, 264
Plate Tectonics, 264
Variations in Earth’s Orbit, 265
Other Factors, 266
The Chapter in Review, 267
Key Terms, 268
Questions for Review, 268
Companion Website, 269
12. Deserts and Wind, 270
Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands, 272
Low-Latitude Deserts, 272
Middle-Latitude Deserts, 273
Geologic Processes in Arid Climates, 274
Weathering, 274
The Role of Water, 275
Basin and Range: The Evolution of a Mountainous Desert Landscape, 276
Transportation of Sediment by Wind, 278
Bed Load, 278
Suspended Load, 278
Wind Erosion, 279
Deflation and Blowouts, 279
Desert Pavement, 280
Ventifacts and Yardangs, 281
Dust Bowl—An Environmental Disaster, 282
Wind Deposits, 283
Sand Deposits, 283
Types of Sand Dunes, 284
Loess (Silt) Deposits, 287
The Chapter in Review, 287
Key Terms, 288
Questions for Review, 288
Companion Website, 289
13. Shorelines, 290
The Shoreline: A Dynamic Interface, 292
The Coastal Zone, 292
Waves, 294
Wave Characteristics, 295
Circular Orbital Motion, 295
Waves in the Surf Zone, 296
Wave Erosion, 297
Sand Movement on the Beach, 298
Movement Perpendicular to the Shoreline, 298
Wave Refraction, 298
Beach Drift and Longshore Currents, 299
Shoreline Features, 300
Erosional Features, 300
Depositional Features, 301
The Evolving Shore, 303
Stabilizing the Shore, 303
Hard Stabilization, 304
Alternatives to Hard Stabilization, 306
Erosion Problems along U.S. Coasts, 308
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, 308
Pacific Coast, 308
Coastal Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise, 308
Hurricanes—The Ultimate Coastal Hazard, 309
Storm Surge, 310
Wind Damage, 311
Inland Flooding, 311
Coastal Classification, 311
Emergent Coasts, 312
Submergent Coasts, 312
Tides, 313
Causes of Tides, 313
Monthly Tidal Cycle, 314
Tidal Currents, 314
The Chapter in Review, 315
Key Terms, 316
Questions for Review, 316
Companion Website, 317
14. Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior, 318
Loma Prieta and Northridge Earthquakes, 320
What Is an Earthquake?, 321
Earthquakes and Faults, 322
Discovering the Cause of Earthquakes, 322
Foreshocks and Aftershocks, 323
San Andreas Fault: An Active Earthquake Zone, 323
Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves, 324
Locating an Earthquake, 326
Measuring the Size of Earthquakes, 327
Intensity Scales, 328
Magnitude Scales, 328
Destruction from Earthquakes, 330
Damage from Seismic Vibrations, 330
What Is a Tsunami?, 331
Landslides and Ground Subsidence, 333
Fire, 334
Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies, 334
Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?, 335
Short-range Predictions, 335
Long-range Forecasts, 336
Probing Earth’s Interior: “Seeing” Seismic Waves, 337
Formation of Earth’s Layered Structure, 338
Earth’s Internal Structure, 338
The Chapter in Review, 339
Key Terms, 340
Questions for Review, 341
Companion Website, 341
15. Plate Tectonics: A Scientific Theory Unfolds, 342
From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics, 344
Continental Drift: An Idea before Its Time, 345
Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle, 345
Evidence: Fossils Match across the Seas, 345
Evidence: Rock Types and Structures Match, 346
Evidence: Ancient Climates, 347
The Great Debate, 348
Plate Tectonics: The New Paradigm, 349
Earth’s Major Plates, 349
Plate Boundaries, 351
Divergent Boundaries, 352
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading, 352
Continental Rifting, 353
Convergent Boundaries, 354
Oceanic–Continental Convergence, 356
Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence, 356
Continental–Continental Convergence, 357
Transform Fault Boundaries, 357
Testing the Plate Tectonics Model, 359
Evidence: Ocean Drilling, 359
Evidence: Hot Spots, 360
Evidence: Paleomagnetism, 362
The Breakup of Pangaea, 365
Measuring Plate Motion, 366
What Drives Plate Motion?, 366
Forces That Drive Plate Motion, 367
Models of Plate–Mantle Convection, 367
Plate Tectonics into the Future, 368
The Chapter in Review, 369
Key Terms, 370
Questions for Review, 370
Companion Website, 371
16. Origin and Evolution of the Ocean Floor, 372
An Emerging Picture of the Ocean Floor, 374
Mapping the Seafloor, 374
Viewing the Ocean Floor from Space, 376
Provinces of the Ocean Floor, 377
Continental Margins, 377
Passive Continental Margins, 377
Active Continental Margins, 378
Features of Deep-Ocean Basins, 379
Deep-Ocean Trenches, 379
Abyssal Plains, 380
Seamounts, Guyots, and Oceanic Plateaus, 380
Explaining Coral Atolls—Darwin’s Hypothesis, 381
Anatomy of the Oceanic Ridge, 382
Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading, 383
Seafloor Spreading, 383
Why Are Oceanic Ridges Elevated?, 384
Spreading Rates and Ridge Topography, 384
The Nature of Oceanic Crust, 384
How Does Oceanic Crust Form?, 385
Interactions between Seawater and Oceanic Crust, 387
Continental Rifting: The Birth of a New Ocean Basin, 387
Evolution of an Ocean Basin, 387
Destruction of Oceanic Lithosphere, 389
Why Oceanic Lithosphere Subducts, 389
Subducting Plates: The Demise of an Ocean Basin, 390
The Chapter in Review, 391
Key Terms, 392
Questions for Review, 392
Companion Website, 393
17. Crustal Deformation and Mountain Building, 394
Rock Deformation, 395
Temperature and Confining Pressure, 396
Rock Type, 397
Time, 397
Folds, 397
Types of Folds, 398
Domes and Basins, 400
Faults, 400
Dip-Slip Faults, 400
Strike-Slip Faults, 402
Joints, 403
Mountain Building, 404
Mountain Building at Subduction Zones, 405
Island Arcs, 405
Mountain Building along Andean-Type Margins, 405
Collisional Mountain Ranges, 407
Terranes and Mountain Building, 407
Continental Collisions, 408
Fault-Block Mountains, 410
Vertical Movements of the Crust, 411
Isostasy, 411
How High Is Too High?, 412
The Chapter in Review, 414
Key Terms, 414
Questions for Review, 414
Companion Website, 415
18. Geologic Time, 416
Geology Needs a Time Scale, 418
Relative Dating—Key Principles, 418
Law of Superposition, 420
Principle of Original Horizontality, 420
Principles of Cross-Cutting Relationships, 420
Inclusions, 421
Unconformities, 422
Using Relative Dating Principles, 423
Correlation of Rock Layers, 424
Fossils: Evidence of Past Life, 426
Types of Fossils, 426
Conditions Favoring Preservation, 428
Fossils and Correlation, 428
Dating with Radioactivity, 429
Reviewing Basic Atomic Structure, 429
Radioactivity, 429
Half-Life, 431
Radiometric Dating, 432
Dating with Carbon-14, 433
Importance of Radiometric Dating, 433
Using Tree Rings to Date and Study the Recent Past, 434
The Geologic Time Scale, 435
Structure of the Time Scale, 435
Precambrian Time, 437
Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale, 437
The Chapter in Review, 438
Key Terms, 439
Questions for Review, 439
Companion Website, 441
19. Earth’s Evolution through Geologic Time, 442
Is Earth Unique?, 444
The Right Planet, 445
The Right Location, 445
The Right Time, 445
Birth of a Planet, 446
From Planetesimals to Protoplanets, 449
Earth’s Early Evolution, 449
Origin of the Atmosphere and Oceans, 450
Earth’s Primitive Atmosphere, 450
Oxygen in the Atmosphere, 450
Evolution of the Oceans, 451
Precambrian History: The Formation of Earth’s Continents, 452
Earth’s First Continents, 452
The Making of North America, 454
Supercontinents of the Precambrian, 454
Phanerozoic History: The Formation of Earth’s Modern Continents, 456
Paleozoic History, 456
Mesozoic History, 457
Cenozoic History, 458
Earth’s First Life, 459
Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes, 462
Early Paleozoic Life-Forms, 462
Vertebrates Move to Land, 464
The Great Permian Extinction, 465
Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs, 466
Reptiles: The First True Terrestrial Vertebrates, 466
Demise of the Dinosaurs, 468
Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals, 469
From Reptiles to Mammals, 469
Large Mammals and Extinction, 471
The Chapter in Review, 472
Key Terms, 473
Questions for Review, 473
Companion Website, 473
Appendix A. Metric and English Units Compared, 475
Appendix B. Topographic Maps, 477
Appendix C. Landforms of the Conterminous United States, 481
Glossary, 483
Index, 495
Endpapers, EP-1

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