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Copyright, iv
Chemical Applications and Essays, xxii
Preface, xxiv
About the Authors, xxxiii
1. Introduction: Matter and Measurement, 1-a
1.1. The Study of Chemistry, 2
The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry, 2
Why Study Chemistry?, 3
1.2. Classifications of Matter, 4
States of Matter, 4
Chemistry Put to Work: Chemistry and the Chemical Industry, 4
Pure Substances, 5
Elements, 6
Compounds, 6
Mixtures, 8
1.3. Properties of Matter, 9
Physical and Chemical Changes, 10
Separation of Mixtures, 11
1.4. Units of Measurement, 13
SI Units, 13
A Closer Look: The Scientific Method, 13
Length and Mass, 14
Temperature, 15
Derived SI Units, 16
Volume, 16
Density, 17
Chemistry Put to Work: Chemistry in the News, 18
1.5. Uncertainty in Measurement, 20
Precision and Accuracy, 20
Significant Figures, 21
Significant Figures in Calculations, 23
1.6. Dimensional Analysis, 24
Using Two or More Conversion Factors, 26
Strategies in Chemistry: Estimating Answers, 26
Conversions Involving Volume, 27
Strategies in Chemistry: The Importance of Practice, 28
Summary and Key Terms, 29
Key Skills, 30
Key Equations, 30
Visualizing Concepts, 30
Exercises, 31
Additional Exercises, 33
2. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions, 36
2.1. The Atomic Theory of Matter, 38
2.2. The Discovery of Atomic Structure, 39
Cathode Rays and Electrons, 39
Radioactivity, 41
The Nuclear Atom, 41
2.3. The Modern View of Atomic Structure, 43
Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotopes, 44
A Closer Look: Basic Forces, 45
2.4. Atomic Weights, 46
The Atomic Mass Scale, 46
Average Atomic Masses, 47
2.5. The Periodic Table, 48
A Closer Look: The Mass Spectrometer, 48
2.6. Molecules and Molecular Compounds, 51
A Closer Look: Glenn Seaborg and Seaborgium, 51
Molecules and Chemical Formulas, 52
Molecular and Empirical Formulas, 52
Picturing Molecules, 53
2.7. Ions and Ionic Compounds, 54
Predicting Ionic Charges, 55
Ionic Compounds, 56
Chemistry and Life: Elements Required by Living Organisms, 57
Strategies in Chemistry: Pattern Recognition, 58
2.8. Naming Inorganic Compounds, 59
Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds, 59
Names and Formulas of Acids, 64
Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds, 65
2.9. Some Simple Organic Compounds, 66
Alkanes, 66
Some Derivatives of Alkanes, 66
Summary and Key Terms, 68
Key Skills, 69
Visualizing Concepts, 69
Exercises, 70
Additional Exercises, 75
3. Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations, 78
3.1. Chemical Equations, 80
Balancing Equations, 80
Indicating the States of Reactants and Products, 83
3.2. Some Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity, 84
Combination and Decomposition Reactions, 84
Combustion in Air, 86
3.3. Formula Weights, 87
Formula and Molecular Weights, 87
Percentage Composition from Formulas, 88
3.4. Avogadro’s Number and the Mole, 89
Strategies in Chemistry: Problem Solving, 89
Molar Mass, 91
Interconverting Masses and Moles, 93
Interconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles, 94
3.5. Empirical Formulas from Analyses, 95
Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula, 96
Combustion Analysis, 97
3.6. Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations, 98
3.7. Limiting Reactants, 102
Chemistry and Life: Glucose Monitoring, 102
Theoretical Yields, 105
Strategies in Chemistry: How to Take a Test, 106
Summary and Key Terms, 107
Key Skills, 108
Key Equations, 108
Visualizing Concepts, 108
Exercises, 109
Additional Exercises, 115
Integrative Exercises, 116
4. Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry, 118
4.1. General Properties of Aqueous Solutions, 120
Electrolytic Properties, 120
Ionic Compounds in Water, 120
Molecular Compounds in Water, 122
Strong and Weak Electrolytes, 122
4.2. Precipitation Reactions, 124
Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds, 124
Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions, 126
Ionic Equations, 127
4.3. Acid–Base Reactions, 128
Acids, 129
Bases, 129
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases, 130
Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes, 131
Neutralization Reactions and Salts, 132
Acid–Base Reactions with Gas Formation, 134
4.4. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions, 135
Chemistry Put to Work: Antacids, 135
Oxidation and Reduction, 136
Oxidation Numbers, 137
Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts, 138
The Activity Series, 140
4.5. Concentrations of Solutions, 142
A Closer Look: The Aura of Gold, 143
Strategies in Chemistry: Analyzing Chemical Reactions, 143
Molarity, 144
Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte, 145
Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume, 145
Dilution, 146
Chemistry and Life: Drinking Too Much Water Can Kill You, 147
4.6. Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis, 149
Titrations, 150
Summary and Key Terms, 154
Key Skills, 155
Key Equations, 155
Visualizing Concepts, 156
Exercises, 156
Additional Exercises, 161
Integrative Exercises, 162
5. Thermochemistry, 164
5.1. The Nature of Energy, 166
Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy, 166
Units of Energy, 167
System and Surroundings, 168
Transferring Energy: Work and Heat, 168
5.2. The First Law of Thermodynamics, 170
Internal Energy, 170
Relating ΔE to Heat and Work, 171
Endothermic and Exothermic Processes, 172
State Functions, 172
5.3. Enthalpy, 174
A Closer Look: Energy, Enthalpy, and P- VWork, 176
5.4. Enthalpies of Reaction, 177
5.5. Calorimetry, 179
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat, 179
Strategies in Chemistry: Using Enthalpy as a Guide, 180
Constant-Pressure Calorimetry, 182
Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry), 183
5.6. Hess’s Law, 184
Chemistry and Life: The Regulation of Human Body Temperature, 185
5.7. Enthalpies of Formation, 188
Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction, 190
5.8. Foods and Fuels, 193
Foods, 193
Fuels, 195
Chemistry Put to Work: The Hybrid Car, 196
Other Energy Sources, 197
Summary and Key Terms, 199
Key Skills, 200
Key Equations, 201
Visualizing Concepts, 201
Exercises, 202
Additional Exercises, 207
Integrative Exercises, 209
6. Electronic Structure of Atoms, 210
6.1. The Wave Nature of Light, 212
A Closer Look: The Speed of Light, 214
6.2. Quantized Energy and Photons, 215
Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy, 215
The Photoelectric Effect and Photons, 216
6.3. Line Spectra and the Bohr Model, 218
Line Spectra, 218
Bohr’s Model, 219
The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom, 220
Limitations of the Bohr Model, 222
6.4. The Wave Behavior of Matter, 222
The Uncertainty Principle, 223
6.5. Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals, 224
A Closer Look: Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle, 225
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers, 226
6.6. Representations of Orbitals, 228
The s Orbitals, 228
A Closer Look: Probability Density and Radial Probability Functions, 230
The p Orbitals, 231
The d and f Orbitals, 232
6.7. Many-Electron Atoms, 232
Orbitals and Their Energies, 232
Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle, 233
6.8. Electron Configurations, 234
A Closer Look: Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin, 234
Hund’s Rule, 235
Chemistry and Life: Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 236
Condensed Electron Configurations, 237
Transition Metals, 238
The Lanthanides and Actinides, 239
6.9. Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table, 240
Anomalous Electron Configurations, 243
Summary and Key Terms, 244
Key Skills, 245
Key Equations, 246
Visualizing Concepts, 246
Exercises, 247
Additional Exercises, 251
Integrative Exercises, 253
7. Periodic Properties of the Elements, 254
7.1. Development of the Periodic Table, 256
7.2. Effective Nuclear Charge, 257
7.3. Sizes of Atoms and Ions, 259
A Closer Look: Effective Nuclear Charge, 260
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii, 262
Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii, 263
7.4. Ionization Energy, 264
Chemistry and Life: Ionic Size Makes a Big Difference, 265
Variations in Successive Ionization Energies, 266
Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies, 267
Electron Configurations of Ions, 268
7.5. Electron Affinities, 270
7.6. Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids, 271
Metals, 272
Nonmetals, 274
Metalloids, 276
7.7. Group Trends for the Active Metals, 276
Group 1A: The Alkali Metals, 276
Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals, 279
Chemistry and Life: The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs, 280
7.8. Group Trends for Selected Nonmetals, 281
Hydrogen, 281
Group 6A: The Oxygen Group, 282
Group 7A: The Halogens, 283
Group 8A: The Noble Gases, 284
Summary and Key Terms, 286
Key Skills, 287
Key Equations, 287
Visualizing Concepts, 288
Exercises, 289
Additional Exercises, 292
Integrative Exercises, 294
8. Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding, 296
8.1. Chemical Bonds, Lewis Symbols, and the Octet Rule, 298
Lewis Symbols, 298
The Octet Rule, 299
8.2. Ionic Bonding, 299
Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation, 301
Electron Configurations of Ions of the s- and p-Block Elements, 302
Transition-Metal Ions, 303
A Closer Look: Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born–Haber Cycle, 304
8.3. Covalent Bonding, 305
Lewis Structures, 305
Multiple Bonds, 307
8.4. Bond Polarity and Electronegativity, 307
Electronegativity, 308
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity, 308
Dipole Moments, 310
Differentiating Ionic and Covalent Bonding, 312
8.5. Drawing Lewis Structures, 314
Formal Charge, 316
A Closer Look: Oxidation Numbers, Formal Charges, and Actual Partial Charges, 318
8.6. Resonance Structures, 319
Resonance in Benzene, 321
8.7. Exceptions to the Octet Rule, 322
Odd Number of Electrons, 322
Less than an Octet of Valence Electrons, 322
More than an Octet of Valence Electrons, 323
8.8. Strengths of Covalent Bonds, 325
Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions, 326
Chemistry Put to Work: Explosives and Alfred Nobel, 328
Bond Enthalpy and Bond Length, 329
Summary and Key Terms, 331
Key Skills, 332
Key Equations, 332
Visualizing Concepts, 332
Exercises, 333
Additional Exercises, 336
Integrative Exercises, 338
9. Molecular Geometry and Bonding Theories, 340
9.1. Molecular Shapes, 342
9.2. The VSEPR Model, 344
The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles, 348
Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells, 349
Shapes of Larger Molecules, 352
9.3. Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity, 353
9.4. Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap, 355
9.5. Hybrid Orbitals, 357
sp Hybrid Orbitals, 357
sp^2 and sp^3 Hybrid Orbitals, 358
Hybridization Involving d Orbitals, 360
Hybrid Orbital Summary, 360
9.6. Multiple Bonds, 362
Resonance Structures, Delocalization, and π Bonding, 365
Chemistry and Life: The Chemistry of Vision, 367
General Conclusions, 368
9.7. Molecular Orbitals, 368
The Hydrogen Molecule, 368
Bond Order, 370
9.8. Second-Row Diatomic Molecules, 371
Molecular Orbitals for Li_2 and Be_2, 371
Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals, 372
A Closer Look: Phases in Atomic and Molecular Orbitals, 373
Electron Configurations for B_2 Through Ne_2, 375
Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties, 376
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules, 379
Chemistry Put to Work: Orbitals and Energy, 380
Summary and Key Terms, 381
Key Skills, 383
Key Equations, 383
Visualizing Concepts, 383
Exercises, 384
Additional Exercises, 388
Integrative Exercises, 390
10. Gases, 392
10.1. Characteristics of Gases, 394
10.2. Pressure, 395
Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer, 395
10.3. The Gas Laws, 398
Chemistry and Life: Blood Pressure, 398
The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle’s Law, 399
The Temperature- Volume Relationship: Charles’s Law, 400
The Quantity-Volume Relationship: Avogadro’s Law, 400
10.4. The Ideal-Gas Equation, 402
Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws, 404
Strategies in Chemistry: Calculations Involving Many Variables, 404
10.5. Further Applications of the Ideal-Gas Equation, 406
Gas Densities and Molar Mass, 406
Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions, 408
Chemistry Put to Work: Gas Pipelines, 409
10.6. Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures, 410
Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions, 411
Collecting Gases over Water, 412
10.7. Kinetic-Molecular Theory, 414
Distributions of Molecular Speed, 414
Application to the Gas Laws, 415
A Closer Look: The Ideal-Gas Equation, 416
10.8. Molecular Effusion and Diffusion, 417
Graham’s Law of Effusion, 418
Diffusion and Mean Free Path, 419
10.9. Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior, 420
Chemistry Put to Work: Gas Separations, 420
The van der Waals Equation, 422
Summary and Key Terms, 425
Key Skills, 426
Key Equations, 426
Visualizing Concepts, 426
Exercises, 427
Additional Exercises, 432
Integrative Exercises, 434
11. Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids, 436
11.1. A Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids, 438
11.2. Intermolecular Forces, 439
Ion–Dipole Forces, 440
Dipole–Dipole Forces, 440
London Dispersion Forces, 441
Hydrogen Bonding, 443
Comparing Intermolecular Forces, 446
11.3. Some Properties of Liquids, 447
Viscosity, 447
Surface Tension, 448
11.4. Phase Changes, 449
Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes, 449
Heating Curves, 450
Critical Temperature and Pressure, 452
11.5. Vapor Pressure, 453
Chemistry Put to Work: Supercritical Fluid Extraction, 453
Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level, 454
Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature, 454
Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point, 455
11.6. Phase Diagrams, 456
A Closer Look: The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation, 456
The Phase Diagrams of H_2O and CO_2, 457
11.7. Structures of Solids, 458
Unit Cells, 460
The Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride, 461
Close Packing of Spheres, 463
11.8. Bonding in Solids, 464
Molecular Solids, 464
A Closer Look: X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals, 465
Covalent-Network Solids, 466
Ionic Solids, 467
Metallic Solids, 467
A Closer Look: The Third Form of Carbon, 468
Summary and Key Terms, 469
Key Skills, 470
Visualizing Concepts, 471
Exercises, 472
Additional Exercises, 477
Integrative Exercises, 478
12. Modern Materials, 480
12.1. Classes of Materials, 482
12.2. Electronic Structure of Materials, 482
12.3. Semiconductors, 484
Semiconductor Doping, 488
The Silicon Chip, 489
Solar Energy Conversion, 489
A Closer Look: The Transistor, 490
Semiconductor Light-Emitting Diodes, 492
12.4. Ceramics, 493
Applications of Ceramics, 494
Making Ceramics, 494
12.5. Superconductors, 495
Ceramic Superconductors, 497
Chemistry Put to Work: Cell Phone Tower Range, 498
12.6. Polymers and Plastics, 499
Making Polymers, 499
Chemistry Put to Work: Recycling Plastics, 501
Structure and Physical Properties of Polymers, 502
12.7. Biomaterials, 505
Chemistry Put to Work: Toward the Plastic Car, 506
Characteristics of Biomaterials, 507
Polymeric Biomaterials, 507
Heart Repair, 508
Vascular Grafts, 509
Artificial Tissue, 509
12.8. Liquid Crystals, 510
Types of Liquid Crystalline Phases, 511
12.9. Nanomaterials, 513
Semiconductors on the Nanoscale, 513
Chemistry Put to Work: Liquid Crystal Displays, 513
Metals on the Nanoscale, 515
Carbon Nanotubes, 515
Summary and Key Terms, 517
Key Skills, 519
Visualizing Concepts, 519
Exercises, 520
Additional Exercises, 524
Integrative Exercises, 525
13. Properties of Solutions, 526
13.1. The Solution Process, 528
The Effect of Intermolecular Forces, 528
Energy Changes and Solution Formation, 529
Solution Formation, Spontaneity, and Entropy, 531
Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions, 533
A Closer Look: Hydrates, 533
13.2. Saturated Solutions and Solubility, 534
13.3. Factors Affecting Solubility, 535
Solute–Solvent Interactions, 536
Chemistry and Life: Fat- and Water-Soluble Vitamins, 538
Pressure Effects, 539
Chemistry and Life: Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving, 540
Temperature Effects, 541
13.4. Ways of Expressing Concentration, 542
Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb, 542
Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality, 543
Conversion of Concentration Units, 544
13.5. Colligative Properties, 546
Lowering the Vapor Pressure, 546
A Closer Look: Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Components, 548
Boiling-Point Elevation, 549
Freezing-Point Depression, 550
Osmosis, 551
A Closer Look: Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions, 554
Determination of Molar Mass, 555
13.6. Colloids, 556
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids, 557
Chemistry and Life: Sickle-Cell Anemia, 559
Removal of Colloidal Particles, 560
Summary and Key Terms, 561
Key Skills, 562
Key Equations, 563
Visualizing Concepts, 563
Exercises, 565
Additional Exercises, 569
Integrative Exercises, 570
14. Chemical Kinetics, 572
14.1. Factors that Affect Reaction Rates, 574
14.2. Reaction Rates, 575
Change of Rate with Time, 577
Instantaneous Rate, 577
Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry, 578
14.3. The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration On Rate, 580
A Closer Look: Using Spectroscopic Methods to Measure Reaction Rates, 580
Reaction Orders: The Exponents in the Rate Law, 581
Units of Rate Constants, 583
Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws, 584
14.4. The Change of Concentration with Time, 585
First-Order Reactions, 586
Second-Order Reactions, 588
Half-life, 589
Chemistry Put to Work: Methyl Bromide in the Atmosphere, 590
14.5. Temperature and Rate, 591
The Collision Model, 592
The Orientation Factor, 592
Activation Energy, 592
The Arrhenius Equation, 594
Determining the Activation Energy, 595
14.6. Reaction Mechanisms, 597
Elementary Reactions, 597
Multistep Mechanisms, 598
Rate Laws for Elementary Reactions, 599
The Rate-Determining Step for a Multistep Mechanism, 600
Mechanisms with a Slow Initial Step, 601
Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step, 602
14.7. Catalysis, 605
Homogeneous Catalysis, 605
Heterogeneous Catalysis, 606
Enzymes, 608
Chemistry Put to Work: Catalytic Converters, 608
Chemistry and Life: Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase, 610
Summary and Key Terms, 613
Key Skills, 614
Key Equations, 614
Visualizing Concepts, 615
Exercises, 616
Additional Exercises, 622
Integrative Exercises, 624
15. Chemical Equilibrium, 626
15.1. The Concept of Equilibrium, 628
15.2. The Equilibrium Constant, 630
Chemistry Put to Work: Haber Process, 631
Evaluating K_c, 632
Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure, K_p, 633
Equilibrium Constants and Units, 635
15.3. Interpreting and Working with Equilibrium Constants, 635
The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants, 635
The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K, 636
Relating Chemical Equations and Equilibrium Constants, 637
15.4. Heterogeneous Equilibria, 639
15.5. Calculating Equilibrium Constants, 641
15.6. Applications of Equilibrium Constants, 644
Predicting the Direction of Reaction, 644
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations, 645
15.7. Le Châtelier’s Principle, 648
Change in Reactant or Product Concentrations, 649
Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes, 649
Effect of Temperature Changes, 651
The Effect of Catalysts, 654
Chemistry Put to Work: Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions, 656
Summary and Key Terms, 657
Key Skills, 657
Key Equations, 658
Visualizing Concepts, 658
Exercises, 660
Additional Exercises, 662
Integrative Exercises, 664
16. Acid–Base Equilibria, 666
16.1. Acids and Bases: A Brief Review, 668
16.2. Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases, 668
The H^+ Ion in Water, 669
Proton-Transfer Reactions, 669
Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs, 670
Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases, 672
16.3. The Autoionization of Water, 673
The Ion Product of Water, 674
16.4. THE pH SCALE, 675
pOH and Other “p” Scales, 678
Measuring pH, 678
16.5. Strong Acids And Bases, 679
Strong Acids, 679
Strong Bases, 680
16.6. Weak Acids, 681
Calculating K_a from pH, 682
Percent Ionization, 683
Using K_a to Calculate pH, 684
Polyprotic Acids, 688
16.7. Weak Bases, 690
Types of Weak Bases, 692
16.8. Relationship Between K_a and K_b, 693
Chemistry Put to Work: Amines and Amine Hydrochlorides, 694
16.9. Acid–Base Properties of Salt Solutions, 695
An Anion’s Ability to React with Water, 696
A Cation’s Ability to React with Water, 696
Combined Effect of Cation and Anion in Solution, 697
16.10. Acid–Base Behavior and Chemical Structure, 699
Factors that Affect Acid Strength, 699
Binary Acids, 699
Oxyacids, 700
Carboxylic Acids, 702
Chemistry and Life: The Amphiprotic Behavior of Amino Acids, 703
16.11. Lewis Acids and Bases, 704
Hydrolysis of Metal Ions, 705
Summary and Key Terms, 707
Key Skills, 708
Key Equations, 708
Visualizing Concepts, 709
Exercises, 710
Additional Exercises, 715
Integrative Exercises, 716
17. Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria, 718
17.1. The Common-Ion Effect, 720
17.2. Buffered Solutions, 723
Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions, 723
Calculating the pH of a Buffer, 724
Buffer Capacity and pH Range, 726
Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers, 727
Chemistry and Life: Blood as a Buffered Solution, 729
17.3. Acid–Base Titrations, 730
Strong Acid–Strong Base Titrations, 730
Weak Acid–Strong Base Titrations, 733
Titrations of Polyprotic Acids, 737
17.4. Solubility Equilibria, 737
The Solubility-Product Constant, K_sp, 738
Solubility and K_sp, 738
17.5. Factors that Affect Solubility, 741
Common-Ion Effect, 741
A Closer Look: Limitations of Solubility Products, 741
Solubility and pH, 742
Chemistry and Life: Sinkholes, 744
Formation of Complex Ions, 745
Chemistry and Life: Tooth Decay and Fluoridation, 747
Amphoterism, 748
17.6. Precipitation and Separation of Ions, 750
Selective Precipitation of Ions, 751
17.7. Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements, 753
Summary and Key Terms, 756
Key Skills, 757
Key Equations, 757
Visualizing Concepts, 757
Exercises, 759
Additional Exercises, 763
Integrative Exercises, 764
18. Chemistry of the Environment, 766
18.1. Earth’s Atmosphere, 768
Composition of the Atmosphere, 769
18.2. Outer Regions of the Atmosphere, 770
Photodissociation, 770
Photoionization, 772
18.3. Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere, 772
Depletion of the Ozone Layer, 774
18.4. Chemistry of the Troposphere, 775
Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain, 776
Carbon Monoxide, 778
Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog, 779
Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate, 780
A Closer Look: Other Greenhouse Gases, 782
18.5. The World Ocean, 783
Seawater, 783
Desalination, 784
18.6. Freshwater, 785
Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality, 786
Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies, 786
18.7. Green Chemistry, 788
A Closer Look: Water Softening, 788
Solvents and Reagents, 789
Other Processes, 790
The Challenges of Water Purification, 790
Summary and Key Terms, 792
Key Skills, 793
Visualizing Concepts, 794
Exercises, 794
Additional Exercises, 797
Integrative Exercises, 798
19. Chemical Thermodynamics, 800
19.1. Spontaneous Processes, 802
Seeking a Criterion for Spontaneity, 804
Reversible and Irreversible Processes, 804
19.2. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics, 806
Entropy Change, 806
ΔS for Phase Changes, 807
The Second Law of Thermodynamics, 808
A Closer Look: The Entropy Change when a Gas Expands Isothermally, 808
19.3. The Molecular Interpretation of Entropy, 809
Molecular Motions and Energy, 809
Boltzmann’s Equation and Microstates, 810
A Closer Look: Entropy and Probability, 812
Making Qualitative Predictions About, 813
Chemistry and Life: Entropy and Life, 815
The Third Law of Thermodynamics, 816
19.4. Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions, 817
Entropy Changes in the Surroundings, 818
19.5. Gibbs Free Energy, 819
Standard Free-Energy of Formation, 822
A Closer Look: What’s “Free” about Free Energy?, 822
19.6. Free Energy and Temperature, 824
19.7. Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant, 826
Chemistry and Life: Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions, 830
Summary and Key Terms, 832
Key Skills, 832
Key Equations, 833
Visualizing Concepts, 833
Exercises, 834
Additional Exercises, 839
Integrative Exercises, 840
20. Electrochemistry, 842
20.1. Oxidation States and Oxidation-Reduction Reactions, 844
20.2. Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations, 846
Half-Reactions, 846
Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions, 846
Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution, 849
20.3. Voltaic Cells, 851
A Molecular View of Electrode Processes, 854
20.4. Cell EMF Under Standard Conditions, 855
Standard Reduction (Half-Cell) Potentials, 856
Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents, 860
20.5. Free Energy and Redox Reactions, 862
EMF and ΔG, 863
20.6. Cell EMF Under Nonstandard Conditions, 865
The Nernst Equation, 865
Concentration Cells, 867
Chemistry and Life: Heartbeats and Electrocardiography, 868
20.7. Batteries and Fuel Cells, 870
Lead-Acid Battery, 871
Alkaline Battery, 872
Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal-Hydride, and Lithium-Ion Batteries, 872
Hydrogen Fuel Cells, 873
20.8. Corrosion, 874
Corrosion of Iron, 874
Chemistry Put to Work: Direct Methanol Fuel Cells, 874
Preventing the Corrosion of Iron, 875
20.9. Electrolysis, 876
Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis, 878
Electrical Work, 879
Summary and Key Terms, 881
Key Skills, 882
Key Equations, 883
Visualizing Concepts, 883
Exercises, 884
Additional Exercises, 889
Integrative Exercises, 890
21. Nuclear Chemistry, 892
21.1. Radioactivity, 894
Nuclear Equations, 895
Types of Radioactive Decay, 896
21.2. Patterns of Nuclear Stability, 898
Neutron-to-Proton Ratio, 898
Radioactive Series, 900
Further Observations, 901
21.3. Nuclear Transmutations, 901
Accelerating Charged Particles, 902
Using Neutrons, 903
Transuranium Elements, 903
21.4. Rates of Radioactive Decay, 903
Radiometric Dating, 905
Calculations Based on Half-life, 905
21.5. Detection of Radioactivity, 908
Radiotracers, 910
Chemistry and Life: Medical Applications of Radiotracers, 910
21.6. Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions, 911
Nuclear Binding Energies, 912
21.7. Nuclear Power: Fission, 913
Nuclear Reactors, 915
A Closer Look: The Dawning of the Nuclear Age, 915
21.8. Nuclear Power: Fusion, 918
21.9. Radiation in the Environment and Living Systems, 919
Radiation Doses, 920
Radon, 921
Chemistry Put to Work: Environmental Applications of Radioisotopes, 921
Chemistry and Life: Radiation Therapy, 922
Summary and Key Terms, 923
Key Skills, 924
Key Equations, 924
Visualizing Concepts, 925
Exercises, 925
Additional Exercises, 928
Integrative Exercises, 929
22. Chemistry of the Nonmetals, 930
22.1. General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions, 932
Chemical Reactions, 933
22.2. Hydrogen, 935
Isotopes of Hydrogen, 935
Properties of Hydrogen, 936
Preparation of Hydrogen, 936
Uses of Hydrogen, 937
Binary Hydrogen Compounds, 937
A Closer Look: The Hydrogen Economy, 937
22.3. Group 8A: The Noble Gases, 938
Noble-Gas Compounds, 939
22.4. Group 7A: The Halogens, 940
Properties and Preparation of the Halogens, 940
Uses of the Halogens, 941
The Hydrogen Halides, 942
Interhalogen Compounds, 943
Oxyacids and Oxyanions, 943
22.5. Oxygen, 944
Properties of Oxygen, 944
Preparation of Oxygen, 944
Chemistry and Life: How Much Perchlorate Is Too Much?, 944
Uses of Oxygen, 945
Ozone, 945
Oxides, 946
Peroxides and Superoxides, 948
22.6. The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, And Po, 948
General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements, 949
Occurrence and Preparation of S, Se, and Te, 949
Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium, 949
Sulfides, 950
Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur, 950
22.7. Nitrogen, 952
Properties of Nitrogen, 952
Preparation and Uses of Nitrogen, 952
Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen, 953
Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen, 954
22.8. The Other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb, and Bi, 956
General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements, 956
Chemistry and Life: Nitroglycerin and Heart Disease, 956
Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus, 957
Phosphorus Halides, 957
Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus, 958
22.9. Carbon, 960
Chemistry and Life: Arsenic in Drinking Water, 960
Elemental Forms of Carbon, 961
Oxides of Carbon, 962
Chemistry Put to Work: Carbon Fibers and Composites, 962
Carbonic Acid and Carbonates, 963
Carbides, 964
Other Inorganic Compounds of Carbon, 965
22.10. The Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb, 965
General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements, 965
Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon, 966
Silicates, 966
Glass, 968
Silicones, 969
22.11. Boron, 969
Summary and Key Terms, 971
Key Skills, 972
Visualizing Concepts, 973
Exercises, 974
Additional Exercises, 977
Integrative Exercises, 978
23. Metals and Metallurgy, 980
23.1. Occurrence and Distribution of Metals, 982
Minerals, 982
Metallurgy, 983
23.2. Pyrometallurgy, 984
The Pyrometallurgy of Iron, 985
Formation of Steel, 986
23.3. Hydrometallurgy, 987
Hydrometallurgy of Gold, 987
Hydrometallurgy of Aluminum, 988
23.4. Electrometallurgy, 988
Electrometallurgy of Sodium, 988
Electrometallurgy of Aluminum, 989
Electrorefining of Copper, 990
A Closer Look: Charles M. Hall, 990
23.5. Metallic Bonding, 991
Physical Properties of Metals, 992
Electron-Sea Model for Metallic Bonding, 992
Molecular-Orbital Model for Metals, 993
23.6. Alloys, 995
Intermetallic Compounds, 996
A Closer Look: Shape-Memory Alloys, 997
23.7. Transition Metals, 998
Physical Properties, 998
Electron Configurations and Oxidation States, 1000
Magnetism, 1001
23.8. Chemistry of Selected Transition Metals, 1002
Chromium, 1002
Iron, 1003
Copper, 1004
Summary and Key Terms, 1005
Key Skills, 1006
Visualizing Concepts, 1007
Exercises, 1008
Additional Exercises, 1010
Integrative Exercises, 1010
24. Chemistry of Coordination Compounds, 1012
24.1. Metal Complexes, 1014
The Development of Coordination Chemistry: Werner’s Theory, 1014
The Metal–Ligand Bond, 1016
Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries, 1016
24.2. Ligands with More Than One Donor Atom, 1019
Metals and Chelates in Living Systems, 1021
A Closer Look: Entropy and the Chelate Effect, 1021
Chemistry and Life: The Battle for Iron in Living Systems, 1024
24.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Chemistry, 1025
24.4. Isomerism, 1026
Structural Isomerism, 1027
Stereoisomerism, 1027
24.5. Color and Magnetism, 1031
Color, 1031
Magnetism, 1033
24.6. Crystal-Field Theory, 1033
Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes, 1037
Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes, 1038
A Closer Look: Charge-Transfer Color, 1040
Summary and Key Terms, 1042
Key Skills, 1043
Visualizing Concepts, 1043
Exercises, 1044
Additional Exercises, 1046
Integrative Exercises, 1048
25. The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemistry, 1050
25.1. Some General Characteristics of Organic Molecules, 1052
The Structures of Organic Molecules, 1052
The Stabilities of Organic Substances, 1053
Solubility and Acid–Base Properties of Organic Substances, 1054
25.2. Introduction to Hydrocarbons, 1054
25.3. Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes, 1055
Structures of Alkanes, 1056
Structural Isomers, 1057
Nomenclature of Alkanes, 1058
Cycloalkanes, 1060
Reactions of Alkanes, 1061
Chemistry Put to Work: Gasoline, 1061
Alkenes, 1062
Alkynes, 1064
Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes, 1065
Mechanism of Addition Reactions, 1066
Aromatic Hydrocarbons, 1068
25.4. Organic Functional Groups, 1070
Chemistry and Life: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, 1070
Alcohols, 1072
Ethers, 1073
Aldehydes and Ketones, 1073
Carboxylic Acids and Esters, 1074
Chemistry Put to Work: Portrait of an Organic Chemical, 1076
Amines and Amides, 1077
25.5. Chirality in Organic Chemistry, 1078
25.6. Introduction to Biochemistry, 1080
25.7. Proteins, 1080
Amino Acids, 1080
Polypeptides and Proteins, 1082
Protein Structure, 1084
Chemistry and Life: The Origins of Chirality in Living Systems, 1085
25.8. Carbohydrates, 1086
Disaccharides, 1087
Polysaccharides, 1088
25.9. Lipids, 1089
25.10. Nucleic Acids, 1090
Strategies in Chemistry: What Now?, 1094
Summary and Key Terms, 1095
Key Skills, 1096
Visualizing Concepts, 1096
Exercises, 1097
Additional Exercises, 1102
Integrative Exercises, 1103
Appendices, 1104
A. Mathematical Operations, 1104
B. Properties of Water, 1111
C. Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15 K (25 ° C), 1112
D. Aqueous Equilibrium Constants, 1115
E. Standard Reduction Potentials at 25 ° C, 1117
Answers to Selected Exercises, A-1
Answers to Give It Some Thought, A-36
Glossary, G-1
Photo/Art Credits, P-1
Index, I-1
Periodic Table of the Elements, EP-1
List of Elements with Their Symbols and Atomic Weights, EP-2
Common Ions, EP-3
Fundamental Constants, EP-3
Useful Conversion Factors and Relationships, EP-4
Index of Useful Tables and Figures, EP-4

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