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Copyright, iv
About the Author, v
Preface, xix
1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving, 2
1.1. Atoms and Molecules, 3
1.2. The Scientific Approach to Knowledge, 5
The Nature of Science: Thomas S. Kuhn and Scientific Revolutions, 7
1.3. The Classification of Matter, 7
The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas, 7
Classifying Matter According to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures, 9
Separating Mixtures, 10
1.4. Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties, 11
1.5. Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change, 14
1.6. The Units of Measurement, 15
The Standard Units, 16
The Meter: A Measure of Length, 16
The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass, 16
The Second: A Measure of Time, 16
The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature, 17
Prefix Multipliers, 19
Derived Units: Volume and Density, 19
Calculating Density, 20
Chemistry and Medicine: Bone Density, 21
1.7. The Reliability of a Measurement, 22
Counting Significant Figures, 23
Exact Numbers, 24
Significant Figures in Calculations, 25
Precision and Accuracy, 27
Chemistry in Your Day: Integrity in Data Gathering, 28
1.8. Solving Chemical Problems, 28
Converting from One Unit to Another, 28
General Problem-Solving Strategy, 30
Units Raised to a Power, 31
Order of Magnitude Estimations, 33
Problems Involving an Equation, 34
Chapter in Review, 35
Key Terms, 35
Key Concepts, 36
Key Equations and Relationships, 36
Key Skills, 37
Exercises, 37
Review Questions, 37
Problems by Topic, 38
Cumulative Problems, 41
Challenge Problems, 42
Conceptual Problems, 43
2. Atoms and Elements, 44
2.1. Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms, 45
2.2. Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter, 47
2.3. Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It, 47
The Law of Conservation of Mass, 47
The Law of Definite Proportions, 48
The Law of Multiple Proportions, 49
John Dalton and the Atomic Theory, 51
Chemistry in Your Day: Atoms and Humans, 51
2.4. The Discovery of the Electron, 51
Cathode Rays, 51
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron, 53
2.5. The Structure of the Atom, 54
2.6. Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms, 56
Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons, 57
Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies, 58
Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons, 60
2.7. Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table, 60
Ions and the Periodic Table, 65
Chemistry and Medicine: The Elements of Life, 67
2.8. Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms, 67
Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Atoms and Molecules, 68
2.9. Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them, 69
The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen”, 70
Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms, 70
Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles), 71
Chapter in Review, 75
Key Terms, 75
Key Concepts, 75
Key Equations and Relationships, 76
Key Skills, 76
Exercises, 77
Review Questions, 77
Problems by Topic, 77
Cumulative Problems, 80
Challenge Problems, 81
Conceptual Problems, 81
3. Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations, 82
3.1. Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water, 83
3.2. Chemical Bonds, 84
Ionic Bonds, 85
Covalent Bonds, 85
3.3. Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models, 86
Types of Chemical Formulas, 86
Molecular Models, 87
3.4. An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds, 89
3.5. Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names, 92
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds, 92
Naming Ionic Compounds, 93
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation, 94
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More than One Kind of Cation, 94
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions, 95
Hydrated Ionic Compounds, 96
3.6. Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names, 96
Naming Molecular Compounds, 97
Naming Acids, 98
Naming Binary Acids, 99
Naming Oxyacids, 99
Chemistry in the Environment: Acid Rain, 100
3.7. Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds, 101
Molar Mass of a Compound, 101
Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing, 102
3.8. Composition of Compounds, 103
Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor, 105
Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas, 106
Chemistry and Medicine: Methylmercury in Fish, 107
3.9. Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data, 109
Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds, 110
Combustion Analysis, 112
3.10. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations, 114
How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations, 115
3.11. Organic Compounds, 117
Hydrocarbons, 118
Functionalized Hydrocarbons, 119
Chapter in Review, 121
Key Terms, 121
Key Concepts, 121
Key Equations and Relationships, 122
Key Skills, 123
Exercises, 124
Review Questions, 124
Problems by Topic, 124
Cumulative Problems, 128
Challenge Problems, 129
Conceptual Problems, 129
4. Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions, 130
4.1. Global Warming and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels, 131
4.2. Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide?, 133
Making Pizza: The Relationship among Ingredients, 133
Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions, 133
Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions, 134
4.3. Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield, 137
Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses, 139
Chemistry in the Environment: MTBE in Gasoline, 143
4.4. Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry, 144
Solution Concentration, 144
Using Molarity in Calculations, 145
Solution Stoichiometry, 149
4.5. Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility, 150
Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions, 151
The Solubility of Ionic Compounds, 154
4.6. Precipitation Reactions, 155
4.7. Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations, 159
4.8. Acid–Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions, 160
Acid–Base Reactions, 160
Gas-Evolution Reactions, 165
4.9. Oxidation–Reduction Reactions, 167
Oxidation States, 169
Identifying Redox Reactions, 171
Chemistry in Your Day: Bleached Blonde, 173
Combustion Reactions, 173
Chapter in Review, 174
Key Terms, 174
Key Concepts, 175
Key Equations and Relationships, 175
Key Skills, 176
Exercises, 176
Review Questions, 176
Problems by Topic, 177
Cumulative Problems, 180
Challenge Problems, 182
Conceptual Problems, 182
5. Gases, 184
5.1. Water from Wells: Atmospheric Pressure at Work, 185
5.2. Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions, 187
Pressure Units, 188
The Manometer: A Way to Measure Pressure in the Laboratory, 190
Chemistry and Medicine: Blood Pressure, 191
5.3. The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law, 191
Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure, 192
Chemistry in Your Day: Extra-long Snorkels, 194
Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature, 195
Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles), 197
5.4. The Ideal Gas Law, 198
5.5. Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas, 201
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure, 201
Density of a Gas, 201
Molar Mass of a Gas, 203
5.6. Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures, 204
Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressure, 206
Collecting Gases over Water, 209
5.7. Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited, 211
Molar Volume and Stoichiometry, 212
5.8. Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases, 214
Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Ideal Gas Law, 215
Temperature and Molecular Velocities, 217
5.9. Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases, 220
5.10. Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces, 221
The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles, 222
The Effect of Intermolecular Forces, 223
Van der Waals Equation, 224
Real Gases, 224
5.11. Chemistry of the Atmosphere: Air Pollution and Ozone Depletion, 225
Air Pollution, 225
Ozone Depletion, 226
Chapter in Review, 228
Key Terms, 228
Key Concepts, 228
Key Equations and Relationships, 229
Key Skills, 229
Exercises, 230
Review Questions, 230
Problems by Topic, 230
Cumulative Problems, 233
Challenge Problems, 235
Conceptual Problems, 235
6. Thermochemistry, 236
6.1. Light the Furnace: The Nature of Energy and Its Transformations, 237
The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions, 238
Units of Energy, 239
6.2. The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch, 240
Chemistry in Your Day: Redheffer’s Perpetual Motion Machine, 241
Internal Energy, 241
6.3. Quantifying Heat and Work, 246
Heat, 246
Work: Pressure–Volume Work, 249
6.4. Measuring ΔE for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry, 251
6.5. Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure, 253
Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View, 255
Stoichiometry Involving ΔH: Thermochemical Equations, 255
6.6. Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring ΔH_rxn, 257
6.7. Relationships Involving ΔH_rxn, 259
6.8. Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Heats of Formation, 262
Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes, 262
Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction, 264
6.9. Energy Use and the Environment, 267
Energy Consumption, 267
Environmental Problems Associated with Fossil Fuel Use, 268
Chemistry in the Environment: Renewable Energy, 270
Chapter in Review, 271
Key Terms, 271
Key Concepts, 271
Key Equations and Relationships, 272
Key Skills, 273
Exercises, 273
Review Questions, 273
Problems by Topic, 274
Cumulative Problems, 277
Challenge Problems, 278
Conceptual Problems, 279
7. The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom, 280
7.1. Quantum Mechanics: A Theory That Explains the Behavior of the Absolutely Small, 281
7.2. The Nature of Light, 282
The Wave Nature of Light, 282
The Electromagnetic Spectrum, 285
Chemistry and Medicine: Radiation Treatment for Cancer, 286
Interference and Diffraction, 287
The Particle Nature of Light, 288
7.3. Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model, 292
Chemistry in Your Day: Atomic Spectroscopy, a Bar Code for Atoms, 294
7.4. The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy, 295
The de Broglie Wavelength, 297
The Uncertainty Principle, 298
Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps, 299
7.5. Quantum Mechanics and the Atom, 301
Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom, 301
Atomic Spectroscopy Explained, 303
7.6. The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals, 306
s Orbitals (l = 0), 307
p Orbitals (l = 1), 308
d Orbitals (l = 2), 310
f Orbitals (l = 3), 310
Chapter in Review, 312
Key Terms, 312
Key Concepts, 312
Key Equations and Relationships, 313
Key Skills, 313
Exercises, 314
Review Questions, 314
Problems by Topic, 314
Cumulative Problems, 315
Challenge Problems, 316
Conceptual Problems, 317
8. Periodic Properties of the Elements, 318
8.1. Nerve Signal Transmission, 319
8.2. The Development of the Periodic Table, 320
8.3. Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals, 321
Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle, 322
Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms, 323
Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms, 326
8.4. Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table, 328
Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table, 330
Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table, 331
The Transition and Inner Transition Elements, 332
8.5. The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model, 332
8.6. Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge, 334
Effective Nuclear Charge, 336
Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements, 337
8.7. Ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii, and Ionization Energy, 338
Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions, 339
Ionic Radii, 341
Ionization Energy, 343
Trends in First Ionization Energy, 344
Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy, 346
Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies, 347
8.8. Electron Affinities and Metallic Character, 348
Electron Affinity, 348
Metallic Character, 349
8.9. Some Examples of Periodic Chemical Behavior: The Alkali Metals, the Halogens, and the Noble Gases, 351
The Alkali Metals (Group 1A), 352
The Halogens (Group 7A), 353
Chemistry and Medicine: Potassium Iodide in Radiation Emergencies, 354
The Noble Gases (Group 8A), 355
Chapter in Review, 356
Key Terms, 356
Key Concepts, 356
Key Equations and Relationships, 357
Key Skills, 357
Exercises, 358
Review Questions, 358
Problems by Topic, 359
Cumulative Problems, 360
Challenge Problems, 361
Conceptual Problems, 361
9. Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory, 362
9.1. Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs, 363
9.2. Types of Chemical Bonds, 364
9.3. Representing Valance Electrons with Dots, 366
9.4. Ionic Bonding: Lewis Structures and Lattice Energies, 367
Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer, 367
Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story, 368
The Born–Haber Cycle, 369
Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size, 371
Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge, 371
Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality, 372
Chemistry and Medicine: Ionic Compounds in Medicine, 374
9.5. Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structure, 374
Single Covalent Bonds, 374
Double and Triple Covalent Bonds, 375
Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality, 375
9.6. Electronegativity and Bond Polarity, 377
Electronegativity, 377
Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character, 379
9.7. Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions, 382
Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds, 382
Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions, 383
9.8. Resonance and Formal Charge, 384
Resonance, 384
Formal Charge, 386
9.9. Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, Incomplete Octets, and Expanded Octets, 387
Odd-Electron Species, 388
Chemistry in the Environment: Free Radicals and the Atmospheric Vacuum Cleaner, 388
Incomplete Octets, 389
Expanded Octets, 390
9.10. Bond Energies and Bond Lengths, 391
Bond Energy, 392
Using Average Bond Energies to Estimate Enthalpy Changes for Reactions, 393
Bond Lengths, 395
Chemistry in the Environment: The Lewis Structure of Ozone, 396
9.11. Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model, 397
Chapter in Review, 397
Key Terms, 397
Key Concepts, 397
Key Equations and Relationships, 398
Key Skills, 399
Exercises, 399
Review Questions, 399
Problems by Topic, 400
Cumulative Problems, 401
Challenge Problems, 403
Conceptual Problems, 403
10. Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory, 404
10.1. Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape, 405
10.2. VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes, 406
Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry, 407
Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry, 407
Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry, 408
Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry, 409
Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry, 409
10.3. VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs, 410
Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs, 410
Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs, 412
Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs, 413
10.4. VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries, 415
Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules, 417
10.5. Molecular Shape and Polarity, 418
Chemistry in Your Day: How Soap Works, 422
10.6. Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond, 423
10.7. Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals, 425
sp^3 Hybridization, 426
sp^2 Hybridization and Double Bonds, 428
Chemistry in Your Day: The Chemistry of Vision, 432
sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds, 432
sp^3 d and sp^3d^2 Hybridization, 434
Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes, 435
10.8. Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization, 438
Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO), 439
Period Two Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules, 443
Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules, 448
Polyatomic Molecules, 450
Chapter in Review, 451
Key Terms, 451
Key Concepts, 452
Key Equations and Relationships, 452
Key Skills, 452
Exercises, 453
Review Questions, 453
Problems by Topic, 453
Cumulative Problems, 456
Challenge Problems, 458
Conceptual Problems, 459
11. Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces, 460
11.1. Climbing Geckos and Intermolecular Forces, 461
11.2. Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison, 462
Changes between Phases, 464
11.3. Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed Phases Together, 465
Dispersion Force, 466
Dipole–Dipole Force, 468
Hydrogen Bonding, 470
Ion–Dipole Force, 472
Chemistry and Medicine: Hydrogen Bonding in DNA, 473
11.4. Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action, 474
Surface Tension, 474
Viscosity, 475
Chemistry in Your Day: Viscosity and Motor Oil, 476
Capillary Action, 476
11.5. Vaporization and Vapor Pressure, 477
The Process of Vaporization, 477
The Energetics of Vaporization, 478
Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium, 480
The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual Phase of Matter, 486
11.6. Sublimation and Fusion, 487
Sublimation, 487
Fusion, 487
Energetics of Melting and Freezing, 488
11.7. Heating Curve for Water, 488
11.8. Phase Diagrams, 491
The Major Features of a Phase Diagram, 491
Navigation within a Phase Diagram, 492
The Phase Diagrams of Other Substances, 493
11.9. Water: An Extraordinary Substance, 494
Chemistry in the Environment: Water Pollution, 495
11.10. Crystalline Solids: Determining Their Structure by X-Ray Crystallography, 495
11.11. Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures, 498
Closest-Packed Structures, 502
11.12. Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types, 504
Molecular Solids, 505
Ionic Solids, 505
Atomic Solids, 506
11.13. Crystalline Solids: Band Theory, 508
Doping: Controlling the Conductivity of Semiconductors, 509
Chapter in Review, 509
Key Terms, 509
Key Concepts, 510
Key Equations and Relationships, 510
Key Skills, 511
Exercises, 511
Review Questions, 511
Problems by Topic, 512
Cumulative Problems, 516
Challenge Problems, 517
Conceptual Problems, 517
12. Solutions, 518
12.1. Thirsty Solutions: Why You Should Not Drink Seawater, 519
12.2. Types of Solutions and Solubility, 521
Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy, 522
The Effect of Intermolecular Forces, 522
12.3. Energetics of Solution Formation, 526
Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration, 528
12.4. Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility, 529
The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids, 531
Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water, 531
Chemistry in the Environment: Lake Nyos, 534
12.5. Expressing Solution Concentration, 535
Molarity, 535
Molality, 536
Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume, 536
Chemistry in the Environment: The Dirty Dozen, 538
Mole Fraction and Mole Percent, 539
12.6. Vapor Pressure of Solutions, 540
Ionic Solutes and Vapor Pressure, 544
Ideal and Nonideal Solutions, 545
12.7. Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmosis, 548
Freezing Point Depression, 549
Chemistry in Your Day: Antifreeze in Frogs, 550
Boiling Point Elevation, 551
Osmosis, 552
Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions, 554
Colligative Properties and Medical Solutions, 555
12.8. Colloids, 557
Chapter in Review, 559
Key Terms, 559
Key Concepts, 560
Key Equations and Relationships, 560
Key Skills, 561
Exercises, 561
Review Questions, 561
Problems by Topic, 562
Cumulative Problems, 565
Challenge Problems, 566
Conceptual Problems, 566
13. Chemical Kinetics, 568
13.1. Catching Lizards, 569
13.2. Rate of a Chemical Reaction, 570
Measuring Reaction Rates, 574
13.3. The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate, 575
Determining the Order of a Reaction, 577
Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants, 578
13.4. The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time, 580
The Half-Life of a Reaction, 584
13.5. The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate, 587
Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy, 590
The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor, 592
13.6. Reaction Mechanisms, 594
Rate Laws for Elementary Steps, 594
Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws, 595
Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step, 596
13.7. Catalysis, 599
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis, 600
Chemistry and Medicine: Enzyme Catalysis and the Role of Chymotrypsin in Digestion, 604
Chapter in Review, 605
Key Terms, 605
Key Concepts, 605
Key Equations and Relationships, 606
Key Skills, 606
Exercises, 606
Review Questions, 606
Problems by Topic, 607
Cumulative Problems, 612
Challenge Problems, 614
Conceptual Problems, 615
14. Chemical Equilibrium, 616
14.1. Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium, 617
14.2. The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium, 619
14.3. The Equilibrium Constant (K), 621
Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Reactions, 622
The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant, 623
Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation, 624
Chemistry and Medicine: Life and Equilibrium, 624
14.4. Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure, 626
Units of K, 628
14.5. Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids, 629
14.6. Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations, 630
14.7. The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change, 633
14.8. Finding Equilibrium Concentrations, 636
Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When You Are Given the Equilibrium Constant and All but One Equilibrium Concentrations of the Reactants or Products, 636
Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When You Are Given the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures, 637
Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems, 641
14.9. Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances, 645
The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium, 646
The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium, 649
The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium, 650
Chapter in Review, 653
Key Terms, 653
Key Concepts, 653
Key Equations and Relationships, 653
Key Skills, 654
Exercises, 655
Review Questions, 655
Problems by Topic, 655
Cumulative Problems, 659
Challenge Problems, 660
Conceptual Problems, 661
15. Acids and Bases, 662
15.1. Heartburn, 663
15.2. The Nature of Acids and Bases, 664
15.3. Definitions of Acids and Bases, 666
The Arrhenius Definition, 666
The Brønsted–Lowry Definition, 667
15.4. Acid Strength and the Acid Dissociation Constant (K_a ), 669
Strong Acids, 669
Weak Acids, 670
The Acid Ionization Constant (K_a ), 671
15.5. Autoionization of Water and pH, 672
The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity, 674
pOH and Other p Scales, 676
Chemistry and Medicine: Ulcers, 677
15.6. Finding the [H_{3}O^{+}] and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions, 677
Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid, 683
Mixtures of Acids, 684
15.7. Base Solutions, 687
Strong Bases, 687
Weak Bases, 687
Finding the [OH^–] and pH of Basic Solutions, 688
15.8. The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts, 690
Chemistry and Medicine: What’s in My Antacid?, 691
Anions as Weak Bases, 691
Cations as Weak Acids, 695
Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral, 696
15.9. Polyprotic Acids, 698
Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions, 698
Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid Solution, 701
15.10. Acid Strength and Molecular Structure, 702
Binary Acids, 703
Oxyacids, 703
15.11. Lewis Acids and Bases, 704
Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids, 705
Cations That Act as Lewis Acids, 706
15.12. Acid Rain, 706
Effects of Acid Rain, 707
Acid Rain Legislation, 707
Chapter in Review, 708
Key Terms, 708
Key Concepts, 708
Key Equations and Relationships, 709
Key Skills, 709
Exercises, 710
Review Questions, 710
Problems by Topic, 711
Cumulative Problems, 714
Challenge Problems, 715
Conceptual Problems, 715
16. Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium, 716
16.1. The Danger of Antifreeze, 717
16.2. Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change, 718
Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution, 720
The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation, 721
Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution, 724
Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid, 728
16.3. Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity, 729
Relative Amounts of Acid and Base, 729
Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base, 730
Buffer Range, 731
Buffer Capacity, 732
Chemistry and Medicine: Buffer Effectiveness in Human Blood, 732
16.4. Titrations and pH Curves, 733
The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base, 734
The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base, 737
Titration of a Polyprotic Acid, 743
Indicators: pH-Dependent Colors, 744
16.5. Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant, 747
K_sp and Molar Solubility, 748
Chemistry in Your Day: Hard Water, 749
K_sp and Relative Solubility, 750
The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility, 751
The Effect of pH on Solubility, 752
16.6. Precipitation, 753
Selective Precipitation, 755
16.7. Qualitative Chemical Analysis, 756
Group 1: Insoluble Chlorides, 758
Group 2: Acid-Insoluble Sulfides, 758
Group 3: Base-Insoluble Sulfides and Hydroxides, 758
Group 4: Insoluble Phosphates, 758
Group 5: Alkali Metals and NH_{4}^{+}, 758
16.8. Complex Ion Equilibria, 759
The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility, 761
The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides, 761
Chapter in Review, 763
Key Terms, 763
Key Concepts, 764
Key Equations and Relationships, 764
Key Skills, 764
Exercises, 765
Review Questions, 765
Problems by Topic, 766
Cumulative Problems, 771
Challenge Problems, 772
Conceptual Problems, 773
17. Free Energy and Thermodynamics, 774
17.1. Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You Can’t Break Even, 775
17.2. Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes, 777
17.3. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics, 779
Entropy, 780
The Entropy Change Associated with a Change in State, 784
17.4. Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings, 785
The Temperature Dependence of ΔS_surr, 786
Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings, 787
17.5. Gibbs Free Energy, 788
The Effect of ΔH, ΔS, and T on Spontaneity, 790
17.6. Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating ΔS^{°}_{rxn}, 793
Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics, 793
17.7. Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating ΔG^{°}_{rxn}, 797
Calculating Free Energy Changes using ΔG^{°}_{rxn} = ΔH^{°}_{rxn} − T ΔS^{°}_{rxn}, 798
Calculating ΔG^{°}_{rxn} using Tabulated Values of Free Energies of Formation, 799
Determining ΔG^{°}_{rxn} for a Stepwise Reaction from the Changes in Free Energy for Each of the Steps, 801
Chemistry in Your Day: Making a Nonspontaneous Process Spontaneous, 802
Why Free Energy Is “Free”, 803
17.8. Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship between ΔG^{°}_{rxn} and ΔG_rxn, 804
The Free Energy of Reaction under Nonstandard Conditions, 804
17.9. Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating ΔG^{°}_{rxn} to the Equilibrium Constant (K), 807
The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Constant, 809
Chapter in Review, 810
Key Terms, 810
Key Concepts, 810
Key Equations and Relationships, 811
Key Skills, 811
Exercises, 812
Review Questions, 812
Problems by Topic, 812
Cumulative Problems, 815
Challenge Problems, 816
Conceptual Problems, 817
18. Electrochemistry, 818
18.1. Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid, 819
18.2. Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations, 820
18.3. Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions, 823
Electrochemical Cell Notation, 826
18.4. Standard Reduction Potentials, 827
Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation–Reduction Reaction, 831
Predicting whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid, 833
18.5. Cell Potential, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant, 834
The Relationship between ΔG° and E^{°}_{cell}, 834
The Relationship between E^{°}_{cell} and K, 836
18.6. Cell Potential and Concentration, 837
Concentration Cells, 840
Chemistry and Medicine: Concentration Cells in Human Nerve Cells, 842
18.7. Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity, 842
Dry-Cell Batteries, 842
Lead–Acid Storage Batteries, 843
Other Rechargeable Batteries, 844
Fuel Cells, 845
Chemistry in Your Day: The Fuel-Cell Breathalyzer, 846
18.8. Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity, 846
Predicting the Products of Electrolysis, 849
Stoichiometry of Electrolysis, 852
18.9. Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions, 854
Preventing Corrosion, 855
Chapter in Review, 856
Key Terms, 856
Key Concepts, 856
Key Equations and Relationships, 857
Key Skills, 857
Exercises, 858
Review Questions, 858
Problems by Topic, 858
Cumulative Problems, 862
Challenge Problems, 863
Conceptual Problems, 863
19. Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry, 864
19.1. Diagnosing Appendicitis, 865
19.2. The Discovery of Radioactivity, 866
19.3. Types of Radioactivity, 867
Alpha (α) Decay, 868
Beta (β) Decay, 869
Gamma (γ) Ray Emission, 870
Positron Emission, 870
Electron Capture, 870
19.4. The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity, 872
Magic Numbers, 874
Radioactive Decay Series, 874
19.5. Detecting Radioactivity, 874
19.6. The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating, 875
Chemistry in the Environment: Environmental Radon, 877
The Integrated Rate Law, 877
Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Artifacts, 879
Chemistry in Your Day: Radiocarbon Dating and the Shroud of Turin, 881
Uranium/Lead Dating, 881
19.7. The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power, 883
Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity, 884
19.8. Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy, 887
Mass Defect, 887
19.9. Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun, 889
19.10. Nuclear Transmutation and Transuranium Elements, 890
19.11. The Effects of Radiation on Life, 891
Acute Radiation Damage, 892
Increased Cancer Risk, 892
Genetic Defects, 892
Measuring Radiation Exposure, 892
19.12. Radioactivity in Medicine and Other Applications, 894
Diagnosis in Medicine, 894
Radiotherapy in Medicine, 895
Other Applications, 895
Chapter in Review, 896
Key Terms, 896
Key Concepts, 896
Key Equations and Relationships, 897
Key Skills, 897
Exercises, 898
Review Questions, 898
Problems by Topic, 898
Cumulative Problems, 900
Challenge Problems, 901
Conceptual Problems, 901
20. Organic Chemistry, 902
20.1. Fragrances and Odors, 903
20.2. Carbon: Why It Is Unique, 904
Chemistry in Your Day: Vitalism and the Perceived Difference between Organic and Inorganic, 905
20.3. Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen, 906
Drawing Hydrocarbon Structures, 906
Stereoisomerism and Optical Isomerism, 909
20.4. Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons, 912
Naming Alkanes, 914
20.5. Alkenes and Alkynes, 917
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes, 919
Geometric (Cis–Trans) Isomerism in Alkenes, 920
20.6. Hydrocarbon Reactions, 922
Reactions of Alkanes, 922
Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes, 923
20.7. Aromatic Hydrocarbons, 924
Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons, 925
Reactions of Aromatic Compounds, 927
20.8. Functional Groups, 927
20.9. Alcohols, 928
Naming Alcohols, 929
About Alcohols, 929
Alcohol Reactions, 929
20.10. Aldehydes and Ketones, 931
Naming Aldehydes and Ketones, 932
About Aldehydes and Ketones, 932
Aldehyde and Ketone Reactions, 933
20.11. Carboxylic Acids and Esters, 934
Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters, 935
About Carboxylic Acids and Esters, 935
Carboxylic Acid and Ester Reactions, 936
20.12. Ethers, 937
Naming Ethers, 937
About Ethers, 937
20.13. Amines, 938
Amine Reactions, 938
20.14. Polymers, 938
Chemistry in Your Day: Kevlar, 941
Chapter in Review, 941
Key Terms, 941
Key Concepts, 942
Key Equations and Relationships, 943
Key Skills, 944
Exercises, 944
Review Questions, 944
Problems by Topic, 945
Cumulative Problems, 950
Challenge Problems, 952
Conceptual Problems, 953
21. Biochemistry, 954
21.1. Diabetes and the Synthesis of Human Insulin, 955
21.2. Lipids, 956
Fatty Acids, 956
Fats and Oils, 958
Chemistry and Medicine: Dietary Fat: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, 959
Other Lipids, 960
21.3. Carbohydrates, 961
Simple Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides and Disaccharides, 961
Complex Carbohydrates, 964
21.4. Proteins and Amino Acids, 966
Amino Acids: The Building Blocks of Proteins, 966
Peptide Bonding between Amino Acids, 969
Chemistry and Medicine: The Essential Amino Acids, 970
21.5. Protein Structure, 970
Primary Structure, 972
Secondary Structure, 972
Tertiary Structure, 973
Quaternary Structure, 973
21.6. Nucleic Acids: Blueprints for Proteins, 974
The Basic Structure of Nucleic Acids, 974
The Genetic Code, 977
21.7. DNA Replication, the Double Helix, and Protein Synthesis, 978
DNA Replication and the Double Helix, 978
Protein Synthesis, 979
Chemistry and Medicine: The Human Genome Project, 980
Chapter in Review, 981
Key Terms, 981
Key Concepts, 981
Key Skills, 982
Exercises, 982
Review Questions, 982
Problems by Topic, 983
Cumulative Problems, 986
Challenge Problems, 987
Conceptual Problems, 987
22. Chemistry of the Nonmetals, 988
22.1. Insulated Nanowires, 989
22.2. The Main-Group Elements: Bonding and Properties, 990
Atomic Size and Types of Bonds, 991
22.3. Silicates: The Most Abundant Matter in Earth’s Crust, 992
Quartz and Glass, 992
Aluminosilicates, 993
Individual Silicate Units, Silicate Chains, and Silicate Sheets, 993
22.4. Boron: An Intersting Group 3A Element and Its Remarkable Structures, 996
Elemental Boron, 996
Boron Compounds: Trihalides, 997
Boron–Oxygen Compounds, 997
Boron–Hydrogen Compounds: Boranes, 998
22.5. Carbon, Carbides, and Carbonates, 999
Carbon, 999
Carbides, 1002
Carbon Oxides, 1003
Carbonates, 1004
22.6. Nitrogen and Phosphorus: Essential Elements for Life, 1004
Elemental Nitrogen and Phosphorus, 1005
Nitrogen Compounds, 1006
Phosphorus Compounds, 1009
22.7. Oxygen, 1011
Elemental Oxygen, 1011
Uses for Oxygen, 1012
Oxides, 1012
Ozone, 1012
22.8. Sulfur: A Dangerous but Useful Element, 1013
Elemental Sulfur, 1013
Hydrogen Sulfide and Metal Sulfides, 1015
Sulfur Dioxide, 1016
Sulfuric Acid, 1016
22.9. Halogens: Reactive Elements with High Electronegativity, 1017
Elemental Fluorine and Hydrofluoric Acid, 1018
Elemental Chlorine, 1019
Halogen Compounds, 1019
Chapter in Review, 1021
Key Terms, 1021
Key Concepts, 1021
Key Skills, 1022
Exercises, 1022
Review Questions, 1022
Problems by Topic, 1023
Cumulative Problems, 1024
Challenge Problems, 1025
Conceptual Problems, 1025
23. Metals and Metallurgy, 1026
23.1. Vanadium: A Problem and an Opportunity, 1027
23.2. The General Properties and Natural Distribution of Metals, 1028
23.3. Metallurgical Processes, 1029
Separation, 1030
Pyrometallurgy, 1030
Hydrometallurgy, 1031
Electrometallurgy, 1032
Powder Metallurgy, 1033
23.4. Metal Structures and Alloys, 1033
Alloys, 1034
Substitutional Alloys: Miscible Solid Solutions, 1034
Alloys with Limited Solubility, 1035
Interstitial Alloys, 1038
23.5. Sources, Properties, and Products of Some of the 3d Transition Metals, 1039
Titanium, 1039
Chromium, 1040
Manganese, 1042
Cobalt, 1042
Copper, 1043
Nickel, 1044
Zinc, 1044
Chapter in Review, 1045
Key Terms, 1045
Key Concepts, 1045
Key Equations and Relationships, 1046
Key Skills, 1046
Exercises, 1046
Review Questions, 1046
Problems by Topic, 1047
Cumulative Problems, 1048
Challenge Problems, 1049
Conceptual Problems, 1049
24. Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds, 1050
24.1. The Colors of Rubies and Emeralds, 1051
24.2. Properties of Transition Metals, 1052
Electron Configurations, 1052
Atomic Size, 1054
Ionization Energy, 1055
Electronegativity, 1055
Oxidation States, 1056
24.3. Coordination Compounds, 1056
Naming Coordination Compounds, 1060
24.4. Structure and Isomerization, 1062
Structural Isomerism, 1062
Stereoisomerism, 1062
24.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds, 1066
Valance Bond Theory, 1066
Crystal Field Theory, 1067
Octahedral Complexes, 1067
The Color of Complex Ions and Crystal Field Strength, 1068
Magnetic Properties, 1071
Tetrahedral and Square Planar Complexes, 1072
24.6. Applications of Coordination Compounds, 1073
Chelating Agents, 1073
Chemical Analysis, 1073
Coloring Agents, 1074
Biomolecules, 1074
Chapter in Review, 1076
Key Terms, 1076
Key Concepts, 1077
Key Equations and Relationships, 1077
Key Skills, 1077
Exercises, 1078
Review Questions, 1078
Problems by Topic, 1078
Cumulative Problems, 1080
Challenge Problems, 1080
Conceptual Problems, 1081
Appendix I. Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry, A-1
A: Scientific Notation, A-1
B: Logarithms, A-3
C: Quadratic Equations, A-5
D: Graphs, A-5
Appendix II. Useful Data, A-7
A: Atomic Colors, A-7
B: Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 25 °C, A-7
C: Aqueous Equilibrium Constants at 25 °C, A-12
D: Standard Reduction Half-Cell Potentials at 25 °C, A-15
Appendix III. Answers to Selected Exercises, A-16
Appendix IV. Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems, A-47
Glossary, G-1
Credits, C-1
Index, I-1
List of Elements with Their Symbols and Atomic Masses, BM-1
Conversion Factors and Relationships, EP-1
Selected Key Equations, EP-2

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