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Copyright, ii
Preface, xix
Part One. Introduction to Learning, 1
Chapter 1. What Is Learning?, 1
Must Learning Result in a Behavioral Change?, 2
How Permanent Is Relatively Permanent?, 3
Learning and Performance, 4
Why Do We Refer to Practice or Experience?, 4
Does Learning Result from a Specific Kind of Experience?, 6
A Modified Definition of Learning, 6
Are There Different Kinds of Learning?, 7
Classical Conditioning, 7
Instrumental Conditioning, 7
Learning and Survival, 8
Why Study Learning?, 10
Chapter 2. Approaches to the Study of Learning, 12
The Systematic Study of Learning, 13
What Is Science?, 13
Aspects of Theory, 13
From Research to Theory, 14
Theories as Tools, 15
The Principle of Parsimony, 16
The Learning Experiment, 17
Arbitrary Decisions in Setting Up a Learning Experiment, 17
The Use of Models, 21
Learning in the Laboratory versus Naturalistic Observation, 22
Kuhn’s Views of How Sciences Change, 22
Popper’s View of Science, 24
Kuhn versus Popper, 25
Chapter 3. Early Notions about Learning, 27
Epistemology and Learning Theory, 27
Plato, 28
Reminiscence Theory of Knowledge, 29
Aristotle, 30
The Beginning of Modern Psychology, 33
Other Historical Influences on Learning Theory, 37
Psychology’s Early Schools, 41
Voluntarism, 41
Structuralism, 42
Functionalism, 43
Behaviorism, 44
Summary and Overview, 46
Part Two. Predominantly Functionalistic Theories, 49
Chapter 4. Edward Lee Thorndike, 49
Animal Research Before Thorndike, 51
Major Theoretical Concepts, 53
Connectionism, 53
Selecting and Connecting, 53
Learning Is Incremental, Not Insightful, 54
Learning Is Not Mediated by Ideas, 55
All Mammals Learn in the Same Manner, 56
Thorndike Before 1930, 56
The Law of Readiness, 56
The Law of Exercise, 57
The Law of Effect, 57
Secondary Concepts Before 1930, 58
Multiple Response, 58
Set or Attitude, 59
Prepotency of Elements, 59
Response by Analogy, 60
Associative Shifting, 62
Thorndike After 1930, 63
Revised Law of Exercise, 63
Revised Law of Effect, 63
Belongingness, 64
Spread of Effect, 65
Science and Human Values, 66
Thorndike on Education, 67
Evaluation of Thorndike’s Theory, 69
Contributions, 69
Criticisms, 69
Chapter 5. Burrhus Frederic Skinner, 72
Major Theoretical Concepts, 75
Radical Behaviorism, 75
Respondent and Operant Behavior, 75
Type S and Type R Conditioning, 75
Operant Conditioning Principles, 76
The Skinner Box, 78
The Cumulative Recording, 79
Conditioning the Lever-Pressing Response, 80
Shaping, 80
Extinction, 81
Spontaneous Recovery, 82
Superstitious Behavior, 82
Discriminative Operant, 83
Secondary Reinforcement, 84
Generalized Reinforcers, 85
Chaining, 86
Positive and Negative Reinforcers, 88
Punishment, 88
Alternatives to Punishment, 91
Comparison of Skinner and Thorndike, 92
Schedules of Reinforcement, 93
Verbal Behavior, 103
Contingency Contracting, 104
Skinner’s Attitude Toward Learning Theory, 105
The Need for a Technology of Behavior, 106
The Relativity of Reinforcement, 107
David Premack, 107
Revisions of the Premack Principle, 109
William Timberlake, 110
The Misbehavior of Organisms, 111
Skinner on Education, 115
Skinner’s Legacy: PSI, CBI, and Online Learning, 117
Personalized Systems of Instruction, 118
Computer-Based Instruction, 119
Evaluation of Skinner’s Theory, 122
Contributions, 122
Criticisms, 123
Chapter 6. Clark Leonard Hull, 126
Hull’s Approach to Theorizing, 128
Major Theoretical Concepts, 129
Major Differences Between Hull’s 1943 and 1952 Theories, 135
Incentive Motivation (K), 135
Stimulus-Intensity Dynamism, 136
Change from Drive Reduction to Drive Stimulus Reduction, 137
Fractional Antedating Goal Response, 137
The Habit Family Hierarchy, 140
Hull’s Final System Summarized, 142
Hull on Education, 143
Evaluation of Hull’s Theory, 143
Contributions, 143
Criticisms, 144
O. Hobart Mowrer, 145
Kenneth W. Spence, 149
Abram Amsel, 154
Neal E. Miller, Visceral Conditioning and Biofeedback, 158
Part Three. Predominantly Associationistic Theories, 163
Chapter 7. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, 163
Empirical Observations, 166
Development of a Conditioned Reflex, 166
Experimental Extinction, 167
Spontaneous Recovery, 167
Higher-Order Conditioning, 168
Generalization, 169
Discrimination, 170
Relationship Between the CS and the US, 170
Major Theoretical Concepts, 171
Excitation and Inhibition, 171
The Dynamic Stereotype, 172
Irradiation and Concentration, 173
Excitatory and Inhibitory Conditioning, 174
Summary of Pavlov’s Views on Brain Functioning, 175
First and Second Signal Systems, 175
A Comparison Between Classical and Instrumental Conditioning, 176
Recent Research on Classical Conditioning, 178
The Rescorla-Wagner Theory of Classical Conditioning, 182
Contingency Not Contiguity, 184
Learned Helplessness, 187
Other Theoretical Accounts of Classical Conditioning, 189
Learned Irrelevance, Latent Inhibition, and Superconditioning, 191
Conditioned Taste Aversion: The Garcia Effect, 193
John B. Watson’s Experiment with Little Albert, 195
Further Applications of Classical Conditioning to Clinical Psychology, 197
Applications of Classical Conditioning to Medicine, 200
Pavlov on Education, 201
Evaluation of Pavlov’s Theory, 202
Contributions, 202
Criticisms, 202
Chapter 8. Edwin Ray Guthrie, 205
Major Theoretical Concepts, 206
The One Law of Learning, 206
One-Trial Learning, 207
The Recency Principle, 207
Movement-Produced Stimuli, 208
Why Does Practice Improve Performance?, 209
Nature of Reinforcement, 210
The Guthrie-Horton Experiment, 211
Forgetting, 212
Summary of Guthrie’s Theory as Presented Thus Far, 213
How to Break Habits, 214
Sidetracking a Habit, 217
Punishment, 218
Summary of Guthrie’s Views on Punishment, 219
Drives, 220
Intentions, 221
Transfer of Training, 221
Voeks’s Formalization of Guthrie’s Theory, 222
Guthrie on Education, 224
Evaluation of Guthrie’s Theory, 225
Contributions, 225
Criticisms, 225
Chapter 9. William Kaye Estes, 228
Major Theoretical Concepts, 229
Generalization, 233
Extinction, 233
Spontaneous Recovery, 234
Probability Matching, 235
Estes’s Markov Model of Learning, 236
Estes and Cognitive Psychology, 241
The Cognitive Array Model: Classifying and Categorizing, 242
Learning to Learn, 248
The Current Status of Mathematical Models of Learning, 251
Evaluation of Estes’s Theory, 251
Contributions, 251
Criticisms, 252
Part Four. Predominantly Cognitive Theories, 254
Chapter 10. Gestalt Theory, 254
Opposition to Voluntarism, Structuralism, and Behaviorism, 256
Major Theoretical Concepts, 257
Field Theory, 257
Nature versus Nurture, 258
Law of Prägnanz, 259
The Brain and Conscious Experience, 259
Subjective and Objective Reality, 262
Gestalt Principles of Learning, 263
The Presolution Period, 265
Insightful Learning Summarized, 265
Transposition, 266
The Behaviorists’ Explanation of Transposition, 267
Productive Thinking, 268
The Memory Trace, 274
Individual Trace versus Trace System, 275
Gestalt Psychology on Education, 276
Was Popper a Gestalt Theorist?, 277
Evaluation of Gestalt Theory, 278
Contributions, 278
Criticisms, 279
Chapter 11. Jean Piaget, 281
Major Theoretical Concepts, 283
Intelligence, 283
Schemata, 284
Assimilation and Accommodation, 284
Equilibration, 286
Interiorization, 287
Stages of Development, 288
Optimal Conditions for Learning, 290
Into What Camp Does Piaget’s Theory Fall?, 291
Piaget on Education, 293
Summary of Piaget’s Theory, 294
Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory, 295
Contributions, 295
Criticisms, 296
Chapter 12. Edward Chace Tolman, 298
Molar Behavior, 300
Purposive Behaviorism, 301
The Use of Rats, 302
Major Theoretical Concepts, 302
What Is Learned?, 302
Confirmation versus Reinforcement, 303
Vicarious Trial and Error, 304
Learning versus Performance, 304
Latent Learning, 305
Place Learning versus Response Learning, 307
Reinforcement Expectancy, 310
The Formal Aspects of Tolman’s Theory, 312
Environmental Variables, 312
Individual Difference Variables, 313
Intervening Variables, 314
MacCorquodale and Meehl’s Formalization of Tolman’s Theory, 316
Six Kinds of Learning, 316
Cathexes, 316
Equivalence Beliefs, 317
Field Expectancies, 317
Field-Cognition Modes, 317
Drive Discriminations, 318
Motor Patterns, 318
Tolman’s Attitude Toward His Own Theory, 319
Tolman on Education, 320
Evaluation of Tolman’s Theory, 320
Contributions, 320
Criticisms, 321
Chapter 13. Albert Bandura, 323
Earlier Explanations of Observational Learning, 325
Thorndike’s and Watson’s Explanations of Observational Learning, 325
Miller and Dollard’s Explanation of Observational Learning, 325
The Skinnerian Analysis of Observational Learning, 327
Nonhumans Can Learn by Observing, 327
Bandura’s Explanation of Observational Learning, 328
Empirical Observations, 329
Major Theoretical Concepts, 331
Attentional Processes, 331
Retentional Processes, 332
Behavioral Production Processes, 333
Motivational Processes, 333
Reciprocal Determinism, 334
Self-Regulation of Behavior, 337
Moral Conduct, 339
Determinism versus Freedom, 341
Faulty Cognitive Processes, 341
Practical Applications of Observational Learning, 343
What Modeling Can Accomplish, 343
Modeling in the Clinical Setting, 344
The Influence of the News and Entertainment Media, 347
Social Cognitive Theory, 349
Human Agency, 350
Bandura on Education, 352
Summary, 353
Evaluation of Bandura’s Theory, 355
Contributions, 355
Criticisms, 355
Part Five. A Predominantly Neurophysiological Theory, 359
Chapter 14. Donald Olding Hebb, 359
Major Theoretical Concepts, 363
Restricted Environments, 363
Enriched Environments, 363
Cell Assemblies, 365
Phase Sequences, 366
Arousal Theory, 367
Arousal Theory and Reinforcement, 368
Sensory Deprivation, 368
The Nature of Fear, 370
Long-Term and Short-Term Memory, 371
Consolidation and the Brain, 373
Hebb’s Influence on Neuroscientific Research, 375
Reinforcement and the Brain, 375
Making Connections: Real Cells and Real Cell Assemblies, 378
Learning in Aplysia, 379
Long-Term Potentiation, 380
Long-Term Depression, 382
Neuroplasticity, 383
Mirror Neurons: Observational Learning, 386
Research on the Split Brain, 387
Left-Brain, Right-Brain Learning and Information Processing, 389
Hemispheric Functioning in Normal Brains, 390
Speculations, 391
New Connectionism, 393
Artificial Cells and Artificial Cell Assemblies, 393
Hebb on Education, 398
Summary, 399
Evaluation of Hebb’s Theory, 401
Contributions, 401
Criticisms, 401
Part Six. An Evolutionary Theory, 405
Chapter 15. Robert C. Bolles and Evolutionary Psychology, 405
Darwin’s Theory and Evolutionary Psychology, 406
Natural Selection and Adaptations, 406
Inclusive Fitness and Neo-Darwinian Theory, 408
Bolles’s Theory of Learning, 409
Major Theoretical Concepts, 409
The Biological Boundaries of Learning, 412
Instrumental Conditioning, 412
Operant Conditioning, 414
Autoshaping, 415
Classical Conditioning, 416
Biological Behaviorism, 418
Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior, 419
The Development of Phobias, 420
Mate Selection, 423
Parenting, 425
Altruism and Moral Behavior, 428
Language, 429
Evolutionary Psychology on Education, 431
Evaluation of Evolutionary Psychology, 432
Contributions, 432
Criticisms, 433
Part Seven, 436
Chapter 16. A Final Word, 436
Current Trends in Learning Theory, 437
Some Unanswered Questions about Learning, 439
How Does Learning Vary as a Function of Maturation?, 439
Does Learning Depend on Reinforcement?, 439
How Does Learning Vary as a Function of Species?, 440
Can Some Associations Be Learned More Easily Than Others?, 440
How Does Learned Behavior Interact with Instinctive Behavior?, 440
How Does Learning Vary as a Function of Personality Characteristics?, 441
To What Extent Is Learning a Function of the Total Environment?, 441
How Do All of the Preceding Questions Interact with Type of Learning?, 441
No Final Answers about the Learning Process, 443
Glossary, 445
References, 463
Name Index, 481
Subject Index, 485

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