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Copyright, iv
Preface, xv
Acknowledgments, xix
1. Essentials of Geography, 1-a
, 1
The Science of Geography, 2
Geographic Analysis, 3
The Geographic Continuum, 3
Earth Systems Concepts, 3
Systems Theory, 5
High Latitude Connection 1.1: Meltponds as Positive Feedback, 7
Focus Study 1.1: The Scientific Method, 8
News Report 1.1: Frogs at a Tipping Point—Check the System, 11
Earth’s Four “Spheres”, 13
A Spherical Planet, 15
Measuring Earth in 247 B.C., 16
Location and Time on Earth, 16
Latitude, 17
Longitude, 17
Great Circles and Small Circles, 19
Focus Study 1.2: The Timely Search for Longitude, 20
News Report 1.2: GPS: A Personal Locator, 21
Where Is the Lighthouse?, 22
Prime Meridian and Standard Time, 22
Maps, Scales, and Projections, 25
The Scale of Maps, 25
Map Projections, 26
Remote Sensing and GIS, 29
Remote Sensing, 33
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 33
Summary and Review, 35
News Report 1.3: Careers in GIS, 35
Part I. The Energy–Atmosphere System, 38
2. Solar Energy to Earth and the Seasons, 40
The Solar System, Sun, and Earth, 42
Solar System Formation and Structure, 42
Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth, 42
Solar Activity and Solar Wind, 44
News Report 2.1: The Nature of Order Is Chaos, 45
Electromagnetic Spectrum of Radiant Energy, 46
Incoming Energy at the Top of the Atmosphere, 47
News Report 2.2: Monitoring Earth Radiation Budget, 50
The Seasons, 51
Seasonality, 51
Reasons for Seasons, 52
Annual March of the Seasons, 53
Summary and Review, 57
3. Earth’s Modern Atmosphere, 60
Atmospheric Composition, Temperature, and Function, 62
Atmospheric Profile, 62
Atmospheric Composition Criterion, 64
News Report 3.1: Falling Through the Atmosphere—The Highest Sky Dive, 65
Atmospheric Temperature Criterion, 67
Atmospheric Function Criterion, 68
Focus Study 3.1: Stratospheric Ozone Losses: A Worldwide Health Hazard, 69
Variable Atmospheric Components, 72
Natural Sources, 73
Natural Factors That Affect Air Pollution, 73
Anthropogenic Pollution, 75
High Latitude Connection 3.1: Arctic Haze, 75
Focus Study 3.2: Acid Deposition: Damaging to Ecosystems, 81
Benefits of the Clean Air Act, 83
Summary and Review, 84
4. Atmosphere and Surface Energy Balances, 88
Energy Essentials, 90
Energy Pathways and Principles, 90
News Report 4.1: Earthshine Studies—Possible Energy Budget Diagnostic, 94
Energy Balance in the Troposphere, 96
The Greenhouse Effect and Atmospheric Warming, 97
Clouds and Earth’s “Greenhouse”, 97
Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance, 99
Energy Balance at Earth’s Surface, 100
Daily Radiation Patterns, 100
Simplified Surface Energy Balance, 101
Focus Study 4.1: Solar Energy Collection and Concentration, 104
The Urban Environment, 108
Summary and Review, 111
5. Global Temperatures, 114
Temperature Concepts and Measurement, 116
Temperature Scales, 116
Measuring Temperature, 117
Principal Temperature Controls, 118
Latitude, 118
Altitude/Elevation, 118
Cloud Cover, 119
Land–Water Heating Differences, 120
Earth’s Temperature Patterns, 126
January Temperature Maps, 126
July Temperature Maps, 129
Annual Temperature Range Map, 130
High Latitude Connection 5.1: Overview of Trends in the Polar Regions, 131
Focus Study 5.1: Air Temperature and the Human Body, 133
Record Temperatures and Greenhouse Warming, 135
Summary and Review, 136
6. Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulations, 140
Wind Essentials, 143
Air Pressure and Its Measurement, 143
Wind: Description and Measurement, 144
Global Winds, 145
Driving Forces Within the Atmosphere, 146
Pressure Gradient Force, 147
Coriolis Force, 148
Friction Force, 151
News Report 6.1: Coriolis, a Forceful Effect on Drains?, 152
Atmospheric Patterns of Motion, 152
Primary High-Pressure and Low-Pressure Areas, 152
Upper Atmospheric Circulation, 157
Multiyear Oscillations, 160
News Report 6.2: MANTRA’s Big Balloon—Blowing in the Wind, 161
Local Winds, 162
Focus Study 6.1: Wind Power: An Energy Resource for the Present and Future, 164
Monsoonal Winds, 166
Oceanic Currents, 167
Surface Currents, 167
News Report 6.3: A Message in a Bottle and Rubber Duckies, 168
Thermohaline Circulation—The Deep Currents, 169
Summary and Review, 170
Part II. The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems, 174
7. Water and Atmospheric Moisture, 176
Water on Earth, 178
Worldwide Equilibrium, 179
Distribution of Earth’s Water Today, 179
Unique Properties of Water, 181
Heat Properties, 182
News Report 7.1: Breaking Roads and Pipes and Sinking Ships, 182
Heat Properties of Water in Nature, 185
Humidity, 185
Relative Humidity, 185
Expressions of Humidity, 188
Atmospheric Stability, 190
Adiabatic Processes, 191
Stable and Unstable Atmospheric Conditions, 192
Clouds and Fog, 193
Cloud Formation Processes, 194
Cloud Types and Identification, 195
Fog, 197
News Report 7.2: Harvesting Fog, 197
Summary and Review, 203
8. Weather, 206
Weather Essentials, 208
Air Masses, 209
Air Masses Affecting North America, 209
Air Mass Modification, 210
Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms, 210
Convergent Lifting, 211
Convectional Lifting, 211
Orographic Lifting, 213
Frontal Lifting (Cold and Warm Fronts), 214
News Report 8.1: Mountains Set Precipitation Records, 216
Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems, 218
Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone, 218
Analysis of Daily Weather Maps—Forecasting, 220
Violent Weather, 221
Thunderstorms, 223
Derechos, 226
Tornadoes, 226
News Report 8.2: May 2003 Tornado Outbreak in Tornado Alley, 230
Tropical Cyclones, 231
Focus Study 8.1: Atlantic Hurricanes and the 2005 Season, 237
Summary and Review, 240
9. Water Resources, 244
The Hydrologic Cycle, 246
A Hydrologic Cycle Model, 246
Surface Water, 247
Soil-Water Budget Concept, 248
The Soil-Water-Balance Equation, 248
Drought, 254
Sample Water Budgets, 255
Water Budget and Water Resources, 256
Focus Study 9.1: Hurricane Camille, 1969: Water-Balance Analysis Points to Moisture Benefits, 259
Groundwater Resources, 261
Groundwater Profile and Movement, 262
Aquifers, Wells, and Springs, 262
Overuse of Groundwater, 263
Focus Study 9.2: High Plains Aquifer Overdraft, 264
Pollution of Groundwater, 267
News Report 9.1: Middle East Water Crisis: Running on Empty, 267
Our Water Supply, 268
Water Supply in the United States, 269
News Report 9.2: Personal Water Use, 269
Instream, Nonconsumptive, and Consumptive Uses, 270
Desalination, 271
Future Considerations, 272
Summary and Review, 273
10. Global Climate Systems, 276
Earth’s Climate System and Its Classification, 278
Climate Components: Insolation, Temperature, Pressure, Air Masses, and Precipitation, 278
Classification of Climatic Regions, 279
Focus Study 10.1: The El Niño Phenomenon—Global Linkages, 281
News Report 10.1: What’s in a Boundary?, 284
Tropical Climates (equatorial and tropical latitudes), 285
Tropical Rain Forest Climates, 285
Tropical Monsoon Climates, 289
Tropical Savanna Climates, 290
Mesothermal Climates (midlatitudes, mild winters), 291
Humid Subtropical Climates, 291
Marine West Coast Climates, 292
Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates, 293
Microthermal Climates (mid- and high-latitudes, cold winters), 297
Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates, 297
Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates, 299
Subarctic Climates, 299
Polar and Highland Climates, 302
Tundra Climate, 303
Ice-Cap and Ice-Sheet Climate, 303
Polar Marine Climate, 304
Arid and Semiarid Climates (permanent moisture deficits), 304
Desert Characteristics, 305
Tropical, Subtropical Hot Desert Climates, 305
Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates, 307
Tropical, Subtropical Hot Steppe Climates, 307
Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates, 307
Global Climate Change, 308
Global Warming, 308
News Report 10.2: Coordinating Global Climate Change Research, 310
Climate Models and Future Temperatures, 313
Consequences of Global Warming, 314
Political Action and “No Regrets”, 316
Summary and Review, 317
Part III. The Earth–Atmosphere Interface, 320
11. The Dynamic Planet, 322
The Pace of Change, 324
News Report 11.1: Radioactivity: Earth’s Time Clock, 324
Earth’s Structure and Internal Energy, 326
Earth’s Core and Magnetism, 326
Earth’s Mantle, 328
Earth’s Lithosphere and Crust, 329
News Report 11.2: Drilling the Crust to Record Depths, 329
High Latitude Connection 11.1: Isostatic Rebound in Alaska, 331
The Geologic Cycle, 331
The Rock Cycle, 331
Igneous Processes, 333
Sedimentary Processes, 336
Metamorphic Processes, 339
Plate Tectonics, 341
A Brief History, 341
Sea-Floor Spreading and Production of New Crust, 342
Subduction of the Lithosphere, 342
The Formation and Breakup of Pangaea, 345
Plate Boundaries, 345
Earthquake and Volcanic Activity, 350
Hot Spots, 350
Focus Study 11.1: Heat from Earth—Geothermal Energy and Power, 352
Summary and Review, 354
12. Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanism, 358
Earth’s Surface Relief Features, 361
Crustal Orders of Relief, 361
Earth’s Topographic Regions, 361
News Report 12.1: Mount Everest at New Heights, 363
Crustal Formation Processes, 364
Continental Shields, 364
Building Continental Crust and Terranes, 364
Crustal Deformation Processes, 366
Folding and Broad Warping, 366
Faulting, 370
Orogenesis (Mountain Building), 374
Types of Orogenies, 375
The Grand Tetons and the Sierra Nevada, 376
The Appalachian Mountains, 376
World Structural Regions, 378
Earthquakes, 379
Expected Quakes and Those of Deadly Surprise, 379
Focus, Epicenter, Foreshock, and Aftershock, 379
Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude, 380
The Nature of Faulting, 381
Earthquakes and the San Andreas Fault, 383
Los Angeles Region, 384
Earthquake Forecasting and Planning, 384
News Report 12.2: Seismic Gaps, Nervous Animals, Dilitancy, and Radon Gas, 385
Volcanism, 386
Volcanic Features, 386
Location and Types of Volcanic Activity, 387
Effusive Eruptions, 387
News Report 12.3: Is the Long Valley Caldera Next?, 390
Explosive Eruptions, 391
Volcano Forecasting and Planning, 395
Focus Study 12.1: The 1980 Eruption of Mount St. Helens, 395
Summary and Review, 397
13. Weathering, Karst Landscapes, and Mass Movement, 400
Landmass Denudation, 402
Dynamic Equilibrium Approach to Landforms, 402
Weathering Processes, 404
Factors Influencing Weathering Processes, 405
Physical Weathering Processes, 406
Chemical Weathering Processes, 408
News Report 13.1: Weathering on Bridges in Central Park, NYC, 410
Karst Topography and Landscapes, 412
Formation of Karst, 413
Lands Covered with Sinkholes, 413
Caves and Caverns, 416
Mass-Movement Processes, 416
Mass-Movement Mechanics, 418
News Report 13.2: Amateurs Make Cave Discoveries, 418
Classes of Mass Movements, 419
Focus Study 13.1: Vaiont Reservoir Landslide Disaster, 422
Human-Induced Mass Movements (Scarification), 425
Summary and Review, 426
14. River Systems and Landforms, 430
Fluvial Processes and Landscapes, 432
Base Level of Streams, 433
Drainage Basins, 434
Drainage Density and Patterns, 437
Streamflow Characteristics, 439
Exotic Streams, 440
News Report 14.1: Scouring the Grand Canyon for New Beaches and Habitats, 441
Stream Erosion, 442
Stream Transport, 442
Flow and Channel Characteristics, 444
Stream Gradient, 445
News Report 14.2: Rivers Make Poor Political Boundaries, 447
Stream Deposition and Landforms, 450
Floods and River Management, 456
News Report 14.3: The Nile Delta Is Disappearing, 456
News Report 14.4: What Once Was Bayou Lafourche—Analysis of a Photo, 457
Engineering Failures in New Orleans, 2005, 459
Rating Floodplain Risk, 460
Streamflow Measurement, 460
Focus Study 14.1: Floodplain Strategies, 461
Summary and Review, 465
15. Eolian Processes and Arid Landscapes, 468
The Work of Wind, 470
Eolian Erosion, 470
Eolian Transportation, 472
Eolian Depositional Landforms, 474
Loess Deposits, 476
Overview of Desert Landscapes, 479
News Report 15.1: The Dust Bowl, 479
Desert Climates, 480
Desert Fluvial Processes, 482
Focus Study 15.1: The Colorado River: A System Out of Balance, 484
Desert Landscapes, 488
Basin and Range Province, 489
Desertification, 492
Summary and Review, 493
16. The Oceans, Coastal Processes, and Landforms, 496
Global Oceans and Seas, 498
Chemical Composition of Seawater, 499
Physical Structure of the Ocean, 501
Coastal System Components, 501
Inputs to the Coastal System, 501
The Coastal Environment and Sea Level, 501
News Report 16.1: Sea-Level Variations and the Present Rise, 503
Coastal System Actions, 504
Tides, 504
Waves, 507
News Report 16.2: Quake and Tsunami Strike!, 510
Coastal System Outputs, 511
Erosional Coastal Processes and Landforms, 511
Depositional Coastal Processes and Landforms, 511
High Latitude Connection 16.1: A Rebounding Shoreline and Coastal Features, 514
News Report 16.3: Engineers Nourish a Beach, 516
Biological Processes: Coral Formations, 520
Wetlands, Salt Marshes, and Mangrove Swamps, 521
Coastal Wetlands, 522
Human Impact on Coastal Environments, 524
Focus Study 16.1: An Environmental Approach to Shoreline Planning, 525
Summary and Review, 527
17. Glacial and Periglacial Processes and Landforms, 530
Rivers of Ice, 532
Alpine Glaciers, 533
Continental Glaciers, 535
Glacial Processes, 536
Formation of Glacial Ice, 537
Glacial Mass Balance, 538
Glacial Movement, 538
News Report 17.1: South Cascade and Alaskan Glaciers Lose Mass, 539
Glacial Landforms, 542
Erosional Landforms Created by Alpine Glaciation, 542
Depositional Landforms Created by Alpine Glaciation, 545
Erosional and Depositional Landforms Created by Continental Glaciation, 546
Periglacial Landscapes, 548
Geography of Permafrost, 548
Ground Ice and Frozen Ground Phenomena, 551
Humans and Periglacial Landscapes, 554
The Pleistocene Ice-Age Epoch, 555
Changes in the Landscape, 556
Lowered Sea Levels and Temperatures, 556
Paleolakes, 558
Deciphering Past Climates: Paleoclimatology, 558
Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age, 559
Mechanisms of Climate Fluctuation, 560
Focus Study 17.1: GRIP, GISP-2, and Dome-C: Boring Ice for Exciting History, 561
Arctic and Antarctic Regions, 563
Changes Are Underway in the Polar Regions, 565
News Report 17.2: Increase in Meltponds, Changing Surface Energy Budgets, 565
High Latitude Connection 17.1: Climate Change Impacts Arctic Ice Shelf, 566
Summary and Review, 568
Part IV. Soils, Ecosystems, and Biomes, 572
18. The Geography of Soils, 574
Soil Characteristics, 576
Soil Profiles, 576
Soil Horizons, 577
Soil Properties, 578
Soil Color, 578
Soil Texture, 578
Soil Structure, 579
Soil Consistence, 579
Soil Porosity, 580
Soil Moisture, 580
Soil Chemistry, 580
Soil Acidity and Alkalinity, 582
Soil Formation Factors and Management, 582
Natural Factors, 582
The Human Factor, 583
News Report 18.1: Soil Is Slipping Through Our Fingers, 583
Soil Classification, 584
Soil Taxonomy, 585
Diagnostic Soil Horizons, 585
The 12 Soil Orders of the Soil Taxonomy, 585
Focus Study 18.1: Selenium Concentration in Western Soils, 592
Summary and Review, 602
19. Ecosystem Essentials, 604
Ecosystem Components and Cycles, 606
Communities, 607
Plants: The Essential Biotic Component, 609
Photosynthesis and Respiration, 611
Abiotic Ecosystem Components, 614
Elemental Cycles, 617
News Report 19.1: Earth’s Magnetic Field—An Abiotic Factor, 617
News Report 19.2: The Dead Zone, 620
Limiting Factors, 621
Biotic Ecosystem Operations, 621
Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers, 621
Examples of Complex Food Webs, 623
Efficiency in a Food Web, 624
Ecological Relations, 624
Concentration of Pollution in Food Chains, 626
Ecosystems, Evolution, and Succession, 626
Biological Evolution Delivers Biodiversity, 628
Ecosystem Stability and Diversity, 629
News Report 19.3: Experimental Prairies Confirm the Importance of Biodiversity, 631
Ecological Succession, 633
Terrestrial Succession, 635
Aquatic Succession, 639
Focus Study 19.1: The Great Lakes, 639
Summary and Review, 644
20. Terrestrial Biomes, 648
Biogeographic Realms, 650
Transition Zones, 651
Terrestrial Ecosystems, 651
Earth’s Major Terrestrial Biomes, 653
News Report 20.1: Aquatic Ecosystems and the LME Concept, 653
News Report 20.2: Alien Invaders of Exotic Species, 654
Equatorial and Tropical Rain Forest, 656
Deforestation of the Tropics, 659
Focus Study 20.1: Biodiversity and Biosphere Reserves, 661
Tropical Seasonal Forest and Scrub, 663
Tropical Savanna, 664
Midlatitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest, 665
Needleleaf Forest and Montane Forest, 666
Temperate Rain Forest, 667
Mediterranean Shrubland, 668
Midlatitude Grasslands, 669
Deserts, 670
Arctic and Alpine Tundra, 671
News Report 20.3: ANWR Faces Threats, 672
Summary and Review, 673
21. Earth and the Human Denominator, 676
The Human Count and the Future, 680
An Oily Bird, 681
The Need for Cooperation, 683
Twelve Paradigms for the 21st Century, 684
Who Speaks for Earth?, 685
News Report 21.1: Gaia Hypothesis Triggers Debate, 685
Appendix A. Maps in This Text and Topographic Maps, A.1
Appendix B. The Köppen Climate Classification System, A.7
Appendix C. Common Conversions, A.11
Glossary, G.1
Index, I.1

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