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Copyright, ii
Preface, xv
Part One. The Research Process, 1
1. Educational Research: Its Nature and Characteristics, 1
Introduction, 1
The Nature of Educational Research, 3
The Empirical Nature of Research, 3
The Systematic Process of Research, 3
The Validity of Educational Research, 5
The Reliability of Educational Research, 9
Research Has a Variety of Paradigms, 10
Classification of Educational Research, 11
Basic and Applied Research, 11
Qualitative and Quantitative Research, 13
General Methods of Research, 15
The Role of Theory, 19
The Activities of the Research Process, 21
Identification of the Research Problem, 23
Data Collection, 23
Analysis, 23
Summarizing Results and Drawing Conclusions, 24
Summary, 25
Key Concepts, 26
Exercises, 26
Notes, 27
References, 27
2. Identification of a Research Problem, 28
Selection of a Research Problem, 28
Statement of the Research Problem, 30
Constants, Variables, and Operational Definition, 33
Hypotheses and the Statement of the Problem, 37
Types and Forms of Hypotheses, 38
Summary, 47
Key Concepts, 48
Exercises, 49
Notes, 50
References, 50
3. The Review of the Literature, 51
Conducting a Search of the Literature, 51
The Activities of the Review of the Literature, 53
Sources of Information, 54
The Library, 55
Periodical Literature, 55
Indexes and Abstracts, 56
ERIC, 57
Reports of Meta-Analysis, 59
Review of Educational Research (RER), 59
Theses and Dissertations, 60
Books, 61
Computer Searches of Databases, 62
Conducting a Search, 63
Selecting Studies for the Review of the Literature, 64
Assembling and Summarizing Information, 65
Abstract or Summary, 66
Organizing Information, 67
Interpreting and Using Information, 68
Critical Review, 68
Writing the Review, 69
Referencing, 71
Preparing the Bibliography, 72
Summary, 73
Key Concepts, 73
Exercises, 74
Notes, 75
References, 75
4. Communicating About Research, 76
Major Sections of the Research Proposal, 77
Identification of the Problem, 78
Review of the Literature, 80
Methods or Procedures, 80
Significance of the Proposed Research, 83
Other Sections of the Research Proposal, 84
Major Sections of the Research Report, 85
Introduction, Including the Statement of the Problem, 86
Review of the Literature, 87
Methods or Procedures, 88
Results, 89
Conclusions, Recommendations, and Implications, 91
Other Sections of the Research Report, 93
Abstract, 93
Bibliography and Reference List, 94
Appendix, 95
Putting a Report Together, 95
Guidelines for Presenting Papers at Meetings, 96
Presentations to Dissertation and Thesis Committees, 98
Summary, 100
Key Concepts, 100
Exercises, 101
References, 102
5. Evaluating Research Reports, 103
Types of Errors and Shortcomings in Reports, 103
Critiquing Major Sections of a Research Report, 104
Introduction, 105
Review of the Literature, 105
Methods or Procedures, 106
Results, 107
Conclusions, Recommendations, and Implications, 107
Overall Impressions When Evaluating a Report, 108
The Review Process for Journals, 109
Suggested Disposition, 109
Standards for Publications, 110
The Evaluation of Proposals, 113
Summary, 115
Key Concepts, 116
Exercises, 116
Notes, 117
References, 117
Part Two. Research Designs, 118
6. Research Design in Quantitative Research, 118
The Purposes of Research Design, 119
The Concept of Controlling Variance, 119
Procedures for Controlling Variance, 120
Characteristics of Good Research Design, 128
Freedom from Bias, 129
Freedom from Confounding, 129
Control of Extraneous Variables, 129
Statistical Precision for Testing Hypotheses, 130
Summary, 130
Key Concepts, 131
Exercises, 131
Notes, 133
References, 133
7. Experimental Research, 134
The Meaning of Experimental Design, 134
Experimental Variables, 136
Use of the Term Subject, 137
Criteria for a Well-Designed Experiment, 137
Experimental Validity, 139
Threats to Experimental Validity, 140
Posttest-Only Control Group Design, 144
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design, 146
Solomon Four-Group Design, 149
Factorial Designs, 151
Repeated Measures Designs, 154
Time Series Designs, 155
Interpreting Results of Experiments, 156
Randomness and Representativeness, 159
Summary, 160
Key Concepts, 160
Exercises, 161
Notes, 164
References, 164
8. Quasi-Experimental Research, 165
The Problems of Validity, 165
Posttest-Only, Nonequivalent Control Group Design, 166
Pretest-Posttest, Nonequivalent Control Group Design, 169
Time Series Designs, 172
Single-Group Time Series Design, 172
Multiple-Group Time Series Design, 175
Variations in Time Series Designs, 177
Single-Subject Designs, 177
A-B Design, 178
A-B-A Design, 181
Action Research and Quasi-Experimental Research, 183
Summary, 185
Key Concepts, 186
Exercises, 186
References, 188
9. Nonexperimental Quantitative Research, 189
Nonexperimental Quantitative Research: Its Scope and Description, 189
Ex Post Facto Research, 190
Survey Research, 193
Survey Designs, 194
Longitudinal Designs, 194
Cross-Sectional Designs, 196
The Methodology of Survey Research, 198
Questionnaire Surveys, 200
Item Construction, 202
Item Format, 203
The Cover Letter, 206
Questionnaire Format, 209
Procedures for Increasing Response Rate, 209
Identifying Sources of Nonresponse, 212
Incomplete and Possibly Dishonest Responses, 213
Web-Based Surveys, 215
Interview Surveys, 220
Interview Items, 220
Conducting the Interview, 222
Potential Sources of Error, 223
Telephone Interviews, 224
Summary, 225
Key Concepts, 227
Exercises, 227
Notes, 229
References, 230
10. Research Design in Qualitative Research, 232
The Epistemology of Qualitative Research, 232
Components of Research Design, 234
Working Design, 234
Working Hypotheses, 235
Data Collection, 236
Data Analysis and Interpretation, 237
Coding, 238
Writing Up Results—Thick Description, 241
Types of Designs in Qualitative Research, 241
Perspectives for Qualitative Research, 243
Reliability and Validity of Qualitative Research, 246
Use of Technology in Qualitative Research, 248
Capabilities of Computer Software in Qualitative Research, 249
Computer Software in Qualitative Research, 250
Summary, 250
Key Concepts, 251
Exercises, 251
Notes, 253
References, 253
11. Historical Research, 254
The Value of Historical Research, 255
Sources of Information in Historical Research, 257
The Methodology of Historical Research, 257
Identification of the Research Problem, 258
Collection and Evaluation of Source Materials, 262
Synthesis of Information, 263
Analysis, Interpretation, and Formulating Conclusions, 264
Quantitative Methods in Historical Research, 266
Comments on the Reporting of Historical Research, 267
Reports in Professional Journals, 268
Summary, 270
Key Concepts, 271
Exercises, 271
References, 272
12. Ethnographic Research, 273
The Nature of Ethnography in Education, 273
The Phenomenological Nature, 274
The Naturalistic Nature, 275
The Holistic and General Perspective, 276
A Conceptual Schema for Ethnographic Research, 276
The Process of Ethnographic Research, 280
Identification of the Phenomenon to Be Studied, 280
Identification of Subjects, 282
Hypothesis Generation, 283
Data Collection, 283
Analysis, 289
Drawing Conclusions, 292
Examples of Ethnographic Research in Education, 293
The Reliability and Validity of Ethnographic Research, 296
Reliability, 296
Validity, 298
The Role of Ethnographic Research, 300
Summary, 302
Key Concepts, 303
Exercises, 303
Notes, 305
References, 305
13. Mixed, Modeling, and Delphi Methods, 306
Mixed Methods, 306
A Mixed Methods Example: Quasi-Experiment and Survey, 307
Advantages of Mixed Methods, 308
Modeling Methods, 309
The Steps in Modeling, 310
A Modeling Example, 311
Modeling Summary, 313
Delphi Methods, 313
The Delphi Process, 314
Variations of the Delphi, 319
A Delphi Example, 319
Considerations When Conducting a Delphi Study, 320
Summary, 321
Key Concepts, 322
Exercises, 322
Notes, 323
References, 323
Part Three. Research Tools, 325
14. Sampling Designs, 325
The Concept of a Random Sample, 325
Random Selection and Random Assignment, 326
Use of a Random Number Table, 327
Use of the Computer in Sample Selection, 329
Sampling Error and Sampling Bias, 330
Criteria for a Sampling Design, 332
Stratified Random Sampling, 333
Allocation of Sample Size Among Strata, 333
Cluster Sampling, 335
Systematic Sampling, 337
Possible Problem of Periodicity, 337
Considerations in Determining Sample Size—Random Sampling, 339
Purposeful Sampling, 342
Comprehensive Sampling, 343
Maximum Variation Sampling, 343
Extreme Case Sampling, 344
Typical Case Sampling, 345
Homogeneous Sampling, 345
Other Variations of Purposeful Sampling, 345
Sample Size of Purposeful Samples, 347
Summary, 347
Key Concepts, 349
Exercises, 349
Notes, 350
References, 351
15. Measurement and Data Collection, 352
Concepts of Measurement, 353
Types of Measurement Scales, 353
Reliability of Measurement, 354
Empirical Procedures for Estimating Reliability, 355
Expected Reliability Coefficients for Various Types of Tests, 356
Validity of Measurement, 356
The Variables Measured in Educational Research, 360
Tests and Inventories Used for Measurement, 360
Achievement Tests in Academic and Skills Areas, 360
Attitude Inventories, 362
Aptitude Tests, 367
Rating Scales, 368
Observation Systems, 370
Where to Find Test Information, 374
Scoring and Data Preparation, 374
Coding Data, 375
An Example of a Data File, 376
Summary, 377
Key Concepts, 378
Exercises, 378
Notes, 379
References, 380
16. Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics, 381
The Multiple Meanings of Statistics, 381
Distributions, 382
Describing a Distribution of Scores, 383
Standard Scores, 387
Correlation: A Measure of Relationship, 389
Uses of Correlation, 392
Different Correlation Coefficients, 393
Data Analysis by Computer, 395
Summary, 400
Key Concepts, 401
Exercises, 402
Notes, 403
17. Data Analysis: Inferential Statistics, 404
Context for Using Inferential Statistics, 404
Testing Hypotheses and Estimating Parameters, 405
Hypothesis Testing and Sampling Distributions, 406
Building a Confidence Interval: The Example Continued, 409
Possible Errors in Hypothesis Testing, 410
Inferences from Statistics to Parameters: A Review, 411
Parametric Analyses, 413
The t-Distribution: Another Sampling Distribution, 413
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), 416
Nonparametric Analyses, 420
The Chi-Square (x^2) Test and Distribution, 420
Correlational Analysis, 423
Analysis of Covariance, 425
Selecting an Appropriate Statistical Analysis, 425
Comments About Statistical Analysis, 428
Meta-Analysis, 429
Summary, 431
Key Concepts, 432
Exercises, 432
Notes, 435
References, 435
Appendix 1. Ethical and Legal Considerations in Conducting Research, 436
Participant Consent, 437
Ethical Guidelines, 438
Appendix 2. Solutions to Exercises, 440
Appendix 3. Tables, 463
Table A Ordinates and Areas of the Normal Curve, 464
Table B Critical Values of t, 466
Table C Upper Percentage Points of the x^2 Distribution, 467
Table D Upper Percentage Points of the F-Distribution, 468
Table E Critical Values of the Correlation Coefficient, 474
Glossary of Research Methods Terms, 475
Name Index, 481
Subject Index, 483
Disk Instructions, 492

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