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Copyright, ii
About the Author, iii
List of Features, xxii
Preface, xxv
Chapter 1. Educational Psychology: A Foundation for Teaching, 1-a
What Makes a Good Teacher?, 3
Knowing the Subject Matters (but So Does Teaching Skill), 3
Mastering the Teaching Skills, 3
Can Good Teaching Be Taught?, 4
The Intentional Teacher, 5
What Is the Role of Research in Educational Psychology?, 8
The Goal of Research in Educational Psychology, 8
Personal Reflection: Adapting, 9
The Value of Research in Educational Psychology to the Teacher, 10
Teaching as Decision Making, 10
Theory into Practice: Teaching as Decision Making, 12
Research + Common Sense = Effective Teaching, 12
Research on Effective Programs, 13
Impact of Research on Educational Practice, 13
Theory into Practice: How to Be an Intelligent Consumer of Educational Psychology Research, 14
What Research Methods Are Used in Educational Psychology?, 15
Experiments, 15
Correlational Studies, 17
Descriptive Research, 20
Action Research, 20
How Can I Become an Intentional Teacher?, 20
Personal Reflection: Using Research to Inform Teaching, 21
Teacher Certification, 21
Beyond Certification, 22
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Choosing a New Curriculum, 24
Chapter 1 Summary, 25
Key Terms, 25
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 26
MyEducationLab, 27
Chapter 2. Theories of Development, 28
What Are Some Views of Human Development?, 30
Aspects of Development, 30
Issues of Development, 30
How Did Piaget View Cognitive Development?, 31
How Development Occurs, 32
Piaget’s Stages of Development, 33
Personal Reflection: Egocentrism in Action, 37
How Is Piaget’s Work Viewed Today?, 40
Criticisms and Revisions of Piaget’s Theory, 40
Theory into Practice: Educational Implications of Piaget’s Theory, 41
Neo-Piagetian and Information-Processing Views of Development, 42
How Did Vygotsky View Cognitive Development?, 42
How Development Occurs, 43
Applications of Vygotskian Theory in Teaching, 44
Theory into Practice: Classroom Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory, 45
How Did Erikson View Personal and Social Development?, 46
Stages of Psychosocial Development, 46
Implications and Criticisms of Erikson’s Theory, 48
What Are Some Theories of Moral Development?, 49
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development, 49
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning, 51
Theory into Practice: Fostering Moral Development in the Classroom, 53
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory, 54
Personal Reflection: Developing Character, 54
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Using Moral Reasoning, 55
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Human Development to Improve Teaching and Learning, 56
Chapter 2 Summary, 58
Key Terms, 59
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 60
MyEducationLab, 61
Chapter 3. Development during Childhood and Adolescence, 62
How Do Children Develop During the Preschool Years?, 64
Physical Development, 64
Cognitive Development, 65
Personal Reflection: Understanding Development, 66
Theory into Practice: Promoting Literacy Development in Young Children, 68
Socioemotional Development, 69
What Kinds of Early Childhood Education Programs Exist?, 70
Day-Care Programs, 70
Preschools, 71
Compensatory Preschool Programs, 71
Early Intervention, 72
Kindergarten Programs, 72
Developmentally Appropriate Practice, 73
How Do Children Develop During the Elementary Years?, 73
Physical Development, 73
Cognitive Development, 74
Socioemotional Development, 74
Theory into Practice: Promoting the Development of Self-Esteem, 75
Theory into Practice: Helping Children Develop Social Skills, 77
How Do Children Develop During the Middle School and High School Years?, 78
Physical Development, 78
Cognitive Development, 78
Theory into Practice: Promoting Formal Operational Thought, 79
Socioemotional Development, 80
Personal Reflection: Coping with Change, 81
Theory into Practice: Providing Developmental Assets for Adolescents, 85
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Early Childhood, Middle Childhood, and Adolescent Students to Improve Teaching and Learning, 86
Chapter 3 Summary, 87
Key Terms, 88
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 89
MyEducationLab, 89
Chapter 4. Student Diversity, 90
What Is the Impact of Culture on Teaching and Learning?, 92
How Does Socioeconomic Status Affect Student Achievement?, 93
The Role of Child-Rearing Practices, 95
The Link between Income and Summer Learning, 96
The Role of Schools as Middle-Class Institutions, 96
School and Community Factors, 97
School, Family, and Community Partnerships, 97
Theory into Practice: Parent Involvement, 98
Is the Low Achievement of Children from Low-Income Groups Inevitable?, 99
Nonschool Solutions to Achievement Problems of Disadvantaged Children, 99
Implications for Teachers, 100
How Do Ethnicity and Race Affect Students’ School Experiences?, 101
Racial and Ethnic Composition of the United States, 101
Academic Achievement of Students from Under-Represented Groups, 101
Why Have Students from Under-Represented Groups Lagged in Achievement?, 102
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Meeting Resistance, 103
Effects of School Desegregation, 104
Personal Reflection: Being Sensitive to Race, 105
Theory into Practice: Teaching in a Culturally Diverse School, 106
How Do Language Differences and Bilingual Programs Affect Student Achievement?, 107
Bilingual Education, 108
Theory into Practice: Teaching English Language Learners, 109
Effective Instruction for English Language Learners, 110
What Is Multicultural Education?, 111
Dimensions of Multicultural Education, 111
How Do Gender and Gender Bias Affect Students’ School Experiences?, 112
Do Males and Females Think and Learn Differently?, 113
Is There a Boy Crisis?, 113
Sex-Role Stereotyping and Gender Bias, 114
Theory into Practice: Avoiding Gender Bias in Teaching, 115
How Do Students Differ in Intelligence and Learning Styles?, 116
Definitions of Intelligence, 116
Theory into Practice: Multiple Intelligences, 118
Origins of Intelligence, 119
Theories of Learning Styles, 120
Aptitude–Treatment Interactions, 120
Theory into Practice: Understanding Diverse Thinkers, 120
Chapter 4 Summary, 121
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Student Diversity to Improve Teaching and Learning, 122
Key Terms, 124
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 124
MyEducationLab, 125
Chapter 5. Behavioral Theories of Learning, 126
What Is Learning?, 128
What Behavioral Learning Theories Have Evolved?, 129
Pavlov: Classical Conditioning, 129
Skinner: Operant Conditioning, 130
What Are Some Principles of Behavioral Learning?, 131
The Role of Consequences, 131
Reinforcers, 132
Theory into Practice: Classroom Uses of Reinforcement, 133
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reinforcers, 134
Theory into Practice: Practical Reinforcers, 135
Punishers, 136
Immediacy of Consequences, 137
Shaping, 138
Personal Reflection: Modifying Behavior, 139
Extinction, 140
Schedules of Reinforcement, 140
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Dealing with Behavior Problems, 142
Maintenance, 144
The Role of Antecedents, 144
How Has Social Learning Theory Contributed to Our Understanding of Human Learning?, 146
Bandura: Modeling and Observational Learning, 146
Theory into Practice: Observational Learning, 147
Meichenbaum’s Model of Self-Regulated Learning, 149
Strengths and Limitations of Behavioral Learning Theories, 150
Chapter 5 Summary, 151
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Behavioral and Social Learning Theory to Improve Teaching and Learning, 152
Key Terms, 152
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 154
MyEducationLab, 155
Chapter 6. Information Processing and Cognitive Theories of Learning, 156
What Is an Information-Processing Model?, 158
Sensory Register, 159
Short-Term or Working Memory, 161
Long-Term Memory, 163
Factors That Enhance Long-Term Memory, 166
Other Information-Processing Models, 167
Research on the Brain, 167
Emerging Research in Neuroscience, 171
What Causes People to Remember or Forget?, 172
Forgetting and Remembering, 173
Theory into Practice: Reducing Retroactive Inhibition, 173
Practice, 176
How Can Memory Strategies be Taught?, 177
Verbal Learning, 177
Paired-Associate Learning, 178
Theory into Practice: Keyword Mnemonics, 178
Serial and Free-Recall Learning, 179
What Makes Information Meaningful?, 180
Rote versus Meaningful Learning, 180
Schema Theory, 182
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Differing Approaches, 182
How Do Metacognitive Skills Help Students Learn?, 183
What Study Strategies Help Students Learn?, 184
Note-Taking, 185
Underlining, 185
Summarizing, 185
Writing to Learn, 185
Outlining and Mapping, 186
The PQ4R Method, 186
Theory into Practice: Teaching the PQ4R Method, 186
Personal Reflection: Defining Effective, 187
How Do Cognitive Teaching Strategies Help Students Learn?, 187
Making Learning Relevant and Activating Prior Knowledge, 187
Organizing Information, 190
Chapter 6 Summary, 191
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Cognitive Theories of Learning to Improve Teaching and Learning, 192
Key Terms, 194
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 195
MyEducationLab, 195
Chapter 7. The Effective Lesson, 196
Personal Reflection: Balancing Instruction, 199
What Is Direct Instruction?, 199
How Is a Direct Instruction Lesson Taught?, 200
State Learning Objectives, 201
Theory into Practice: Planning a Lesson, 203
Orient Students to the Lesson, 203
Theory into Practice: Communicating Objectives to Students, 204
Review Prerequisites, 205
Present New Material, 205
Conduct Learning Probes, 208
Theory into Practice: Assessment for Learning, 210
Provide Independent Practice, 211
Assess Performance and Provide Feedback, 213
Provide Distributed Practice and Review, 213
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Designing Lessons, 214
What Does Research on Direct Instruction Methods Suggest?, 215
Advantages and Limitations of Direct Instruction, 216
How Do Students Learn and Transfer Concepts?, 216
Concept Learning and Teaching, 216
Teaching for Transfer of Learning, 217
How Are Discussions Used in Instruction?, 220
Subjective and Controversial Topics, 220
Difficult and Novel Concepts, 220
Affective Objectives, 221
Whole-Class Discussions, 221
Small-Group Discussions, 222
Chapter 7 Summary, 223
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Direct Instruction to Improve Teaching and Learning, 224
Key Terms, 226
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 226
MyEducationLab, 227
Chapter 8. Student-Centered and Constructivist Approaches to Instruction, 228
What Is the Constructivist View of Learning?, 231
Historical Roots of Constructivism, 231
Top-Down Processing, 233
Cooperative Learning, 233
Discovery Learning, 233
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Developing Self-Regulating Techniques, 235
Self-Regulated Learning, 236
Scaffolding, 236
APA’s Learner-Centered Psychological Principles, 238
Constructivist Methods in the Content Areas, 239
Theory into Practice: Introducing Reciprocal Teaching, 240
Research on Constructivist Methods, 242
How Is Cooperative Learning Used in Instruction?, 243
Cooperative Learning Methods, 243
Theory into Practice: Student Teams–Achievement Divisions (STAD), 244
Research on Cooperative Learning, 247
Personal Reflection: Working Together, 249
How Are Problem-Solving and Thinking Skills Taught?, 249
The Problem-Solving Process, 249
Teaching Creative Problem Solving, 251
Teaching Thinking Skills, 253
Critical Thinking, 255
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Student-Centered and Constructivist Approaches to Improve Teaching and Learning, 256
Chapter 8 Summary, 258
Key Terms, 258
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 259
MyEducationLab, 259
Chapter 9. Accommodating Instruction to Meet Individual Needs, 260
What Are Elements of Effective Instruction Beyond a Good Lesson?, 262
Carroll’s Model of School Learning and QAIT, 263
How Are Students Grouped to Accommodate Achievement Differences?, 265
Between-Class Ability Grouping, 267
Untracking, 269
Regrouping for Reading and Mathematics, 270
Nongraded (Cross-Age Grouping) Elementary Schools, 270
Within-Class Ability Grouping, 270
Retention, 271
What Are Some Ways of Individualizing Instruction?, 272
Peer Tutoring, 273
Adult Tutoring, 273
Theory into Practice: Effectively Using Tutoring Methods to Meet Individual Needs, 274
Differentiated Instruction, 275
How Is Technology Used in Education?, 275
Technology for Instruction, 276
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Should Computers Be in Labs or Classrooms?, 277
Technology for Learning, 277
Instructional Television and Embedded Multimedia, 282
Interactive Whiteboards, 282
Technology for Administration, 283
Research on Computer-Assisted Instruction, 283
Personal Reflection: Computers in Education, 284
What Educational Programs Exist for Students Placed at Risk?, 285
Compensatory Education Programs, 286
Early Intervention Programs, 287
Comprehensive School Reform Programs, 289
After-School and Summer School Programs, 289
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Accommodating Instruction to Meet Individual Needs, 290
Chapter 9 Summary, 291
Key Terms, 292
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 293
MyEducationLab, 293
Chapter 10. Motivating Students to Learn, 294
What Is Motivation?, 296
What Are Some Theories of Motivation?, 297
Motivation and Behavioral Learning Theory, 297
Motivation and Human Needs, 299
Motivation and Attribution Theory, 300
Motivation and Self-Regulated Learning, 302
Theory into Practice: Giving Students Motivating Feedback, 303
Motivation and Expectancy Theory, 304
How Can Achievement Motivation be Enhanced?, 305
Motivation and Goal Orientations, 306
Personal Reflection: Using Different Styles, 306
Learned Helplessness, 307
Theory into Practice: Helping Students Overcome Learned Helplessness, 309
Teacher Expectations and Achievement, 309
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Expectations, 310
Anxiety and Achievement, 311
How Can Teachers Increase Students’ Motivation to Learn?, 312
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, 312
How Can Teachers Enhance Intrinsic Motivation?, 314
Principles for Providing Extrinsic Incentives to Learn, 316
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Adapting Strategies, 317
Using Praise Effectively, 319
Teaching Students to Praise Themselves, 320
Chapter 10 Summary, 321
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Motivation to Improve Teaching and Learning, 322
Key Terms, 324
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 324
MyEducationLab, 325
Chapter 11. Effective Learning Environments, 326
What Is an Effective Learning Environment?, 329
What Is the Impact of Time on Learning?, 329
Using Allocated Time for Instruction, 330
Using Engaged Time Effectively, 333
Can Time On-Task Be Too High?, 337
Classroom Management in the Student-Centered Classroom, 337
Personal Reflection: Maintaining Control, 337
What Practices Contribute to Effective Classroom Management?, 338
Starting Out the Year Right, 339
Setting Class Rules, 339
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Rules of the Room, 340
What Are Some Strategies for Managing Routine Misbehavior?, 341
The Principle of Least Intervention, 342
Prevention, 342
Nonverbal Cues, 343
Praising Behavior That Is Incompatible with Misbehavior, 343
Praising Other Students, 343
Verbal Reminders, 344
Repeated Reminders, 344
Applying Consequences, 344
How Is Applied Behavior Analysis Used to Manage More Serious Behavior Problems?, 345
How Student Misbehavior Is Maintained, 345
Principles of Applied Behavior Analysis, 347
Applied Behavior Analysis Programs, 350
Theory into Practice: Using a Daily Report Card System, 351
Theory into Practice: Establishing a Group Contingency Program, 353
Ethics of Behavioral Methods, 354
How Can Serious Behavior Problems be Prevented?, 354
Preventive Programs, 355
Identifying Causes of Misbehavior, 355
Enforcing Rules and Practices, 355
Enforcing School Attendance, 355
Check and Connect, 356
Practicing Intervention, 356
Requesting Family Involvement, 357
Using Peer Mediation, 357
Judiciously Applying Consequences, 358
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Effective Learning Environments to Improve Teaching and Learning, 358
Chapter 11 Summary, 359
Key Terms, 360
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 361
MyEducationLab, 361
Chapter 12. Learners with Exceptionalities, 362
Who Are Learners with Exceptionalities?, 365
“People-First” Language, 365
Types of Exceptionalities and the Numbers of Students Served, 366
Students with Mental Retardation, 366
Theory into Practice: Teaching Adaptive Behavior Skills, 368
Students with Learning Disabilities, 369
Theory into Practice: Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities, 371
Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, 372
Theory into Practice: Students with ADHD: The Role of the Teacher, 372
Students with Speech or Language Impairments, 373
Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 374
Students with Autism, 375
Students with Sensory, Physical, and Health Impairments, 376
Students Who Are Gifted and Talented, 377
What Is Special Education?, 379
Public Law 94-142 and IDEA, 379
An Array of Special-Education Services, 381
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Referring a Student, 384
Theory into Practice: Preparing IEPs, 385
What Is Inclusion?, 390
Personal Reflection: The Struggle over Inclusion, 391
Research on Inclusion, 392
Adapting Instruction, 393
Theory into Practice: Adapting Instruction for Students with Special Needs, 394
Teaching Learning Strategies and Metacognitive Awareness, 395
Prevention and Early Intervention, 395
Computers and Students with Disabilities, 395
Buddy Systems and Peer Tutoring, 396
Special-Education Teams, 396
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Finding What Works, 398
Social Integration of Students with Disabilities, 399
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Learners with Exceptionalities to Improve Teaching and Learning, 400
Chapter 12 Summary, 400
Key Terms, 402
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 402
MyEducationLab, 403
Chapter 13. Assessing Student Learning, 404
What Are Instructional Objectives and How Are They Used?, 406
Planning Lesson Objectives, 407
Theory into Practice: Planning Courses, Units, and Lessons, 410
Linking Objectives and Assessment, 412
Using Taxonomies of Instructional Objectives, 413
Research on Instructional Objectives, 415
Why Is Evaluation Important?, 416
Evaluation as Feedback, 416
Evaluation as Information, 417
Evaluation as Incentive, 418
How Is Student Learning Evaluated?, 418
Formative and Summative Evaluations, 418
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Evaluations, 418
Matching Evaluation Strategies with Goals, 419
How Are Tests Constructed?, 421
Principles of Achievement Testing, 421
Theory into Practice: Making Assessments Fair, 422
Using a Table of Specifications, 424
Writing Selected-Response Test Items, 425
Theory into Practice: Writing Multiple-Choice Tests (Format Suggestions), 426
Writing Constructed-Response Items, 428
Writing and Evaluating Essay Tests, 429
Theory into Practice: Detecting Bluffing in Students’ Essays, 432
Writing and Evaluating Problem-Solving Items, 432
Theory into Practice: Peer Evaluations, 433
What Are Authentic, Portfolio, and Performance Assessments?, 435
Portfolio Assessment, 436
Theory into Practice: Using Portfolios in the Classroom, 437
Performance Assessment, 438
How Well Do Performance Assessments Work?, 438
Scoring Rubrics for Performance Assessments, 440
How Are Grades Determined?, 442
Establishing Grading Criteria, 442
Assigning Letter Grades, 442
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Establishing a Grading System, 443
Performance Grading, 445
Other Alternative Grading Systems, 445
Assigning Report Card Grades, 447
Personal Reflection: Assigning Grades, 447
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Assessing Student Learning to Improve Teaching and Learning, 448
Chapter 13 Summary, 450
Key Terms, 451
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 452
MyEducationLab, 453
Chapter 14. Standardized Tests and Accountability, 454
What Are Standardized Tests and How Are They Used?, 456
Selection and Placement, 457
Diagnosis, 458
Evaluation and Accountability, 458
School Improvement, 458
What Types of Standardized Tests Are Given?, 459
Aptitude Tests, 460
Norm-Referenced Achievement Tests, 462
Criterion-Referenced Achievement Tests, 463
Standard Setting, 463
How Are Standardized Tests Interpreted?, 463
Percentile Scores, 464
Grade-Equivalent Scores, 464
Standard Scores, 465
Theory into Practice: Interpreting Standardized Test Scores, 468
What Are Some Issues Concerning Standardized and Classroom Testing?, 473
Test Validity, 473
Test Reliability, 475
Test Bias, 475
Teaching Dilemmas: Cases to Consider: Dealing with High-Stakes Testing, 476
Computer Test Administration, 477
How Are Educators Held Accountable for Student Achievement?, 477
No Child Left Behind, 479
Personal Reflection: Mixed Messages, 480
Theory into Practice: Teaching Test-Taking Skills, 481
Benchmark Assessments, 484
Data-Driven Reform, 484
Accommodations for Students with Disabilities, 486
Contamination of Accountability Systems, 486
Chapter 14 Summary, 487
The Intentional Teacher Using What You Know about Standardized Tests to Improve Teaching and Learning, 488
Key Terms, 489
Self-Assessment: Practicing for Licensure, 490
MyEducationLab, 491
Appendix: Developing Your Portfolio, 493
References, 499
Name Index, 545
Subject Index, 556

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