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Copyright, ii
About the Author, iv
Preface, xv
Acknowledgments, xvi
Part One. Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology, 1
1. The Scientific Movements Leading to Evolutionary Psychology, 2
Landmarks in the History of Evolutionary Thinking, 3
Evolution before Darwin, 3
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection, 4
Darwin’s Theory of Sexual Selection, 6
The Role of Natural and Sexual Selection in Evolutionary Theory, 8
The Modern Synthesis: Genes and Particulate Inheritance, 10
The Ethology Movement, 11
The Inclusive Fitness Revolution, 13
Clarifying Adaptation and Natural Selection, 14
Trivers’s Seminal Theories, 16
The Sociobiology Controversy, 17
Common Misunderstandings about Evolutionary Theory, 18
Misunderstanding 1: Human Behavior Is Genetically Determined, 18
Misunderstanding 2: If It’s Evolutionary, We Can’t Change It, 18
Misunderstanding 3: Current Mechanisms Are Optimally Designed, 19
Milestones in the Origins of Modern Humans, 20
Landmarks in the Field of Psychology, 24
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, 24
Box 1.1 Out of Africa versus Multiregional Origins: The Origins of Modern Humans, 25
William James and the Psychology of Instincts, 27
The Rise of Behaviorism, 28
The Astonishing Discoveries of Cultural Variability, 28
The Garcia Effect, Prepared Fears, and the Decline of Radical Behaviorism, 29
Peering into the Black Box: The Cognitive Revolution, 31
Summary, 33
Suggested Readings, 35
2. The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology, 36
The Origins of Human Nature, 37
Three Theories of the Origins of Complex Adaptive Mechanisms, 37
The Three Products of Evolution, 39
Levels of Evolutionary Analysis in Evolutionary Psychology, 42
The Core of Human Nature: Fundamentals of Evolved Psychological Mechanisms, 49
All Species Have a Nature, 49
Definition of an Evolved Psychological Mechanism, 50
Important Properties of Evolved Psychological Mechanisms, 53
Learning, Culture, and Evolved Psychological Mechanisms, 58
Methods for Testing Evolutionary Hypotheses, 59
Comparing Different Species, 60
Comparing Males and Females, 60
Comparing Individuals within a Species, 61
Comparing the Same Individuals in Different Contexts, 61
Experimental Methods, 62
Sources of Data for Testing Evolutionary Hypotheses, 63
Archeological Records, 63
Data from Hunter-Gatherer Societies, 63
Observations, 63
Self-Reports, 64
Life-History Data and Public Records, 64
Human Products, 65
Transcending the Limitations of Single Data Sources, 65
Identifying Adaptive Problems, 66
Guidance from Modern Evolutionary Theory, 66
Guidance from Knowledge of Universal Human Structures, 66
Guidance from Traditional Societies, 67
Guidance from Paleoarcheology and Paleoanthropology, 67
Guidance from Current Mechanisms, 67
Guidance from Task Analysis, 67
Organization of Adaptive Problems, 68
Summary, 68
Suggested Readings, 70
Part Two. Problems of Survival, 71
3. Combating the Hostile Forces of Nature: Human Survival Problems, 72
Food Acquisition and Selection, 73
Food Selection in Rats, 74
Food Selection in Humans, 74
Why Humans Like Spices: The Antimicrobial Hypothesis, 76
Why Humans Like to Drink Alcohol: An Evolutionary Hangover?, 77
Sickness in Pregnant Women: The Embryo Protection Hypothesis, 78
The Hunting Hypothesis, 80
The Gathering Hypothesis, 84
Comparing the Hunting and Gathering Hypotheses, 85
The Scavenging Hypothesis, 86
Adaptations to Gathering and Hunting: Sex Differences in Specific Spatial Abilities, 87
Finding a Place to Live: Shelter and Landscape Preferences, 89
The Savanna Hypothesis, 90
Combating Predators and Other Environmental Dangers: Fears, Phobias, Anxieties, and “Evolutionary Memories”, 92
Most Common Human Fears, 94
Box 3.1 The Adaptive Conservatism Hypothesis of Fears, 97
Children’s Antipredator Adaptations, 97
Darwinian Medicine: Combating Disease, 98
Why Do People Die?, 99
The Theory of Senescence, 100
The Puzzle of Suicide, 101
Summary, 103
Suggested Readings, 104
Part Three. Challenges of Sex and Mating, 105
4. Women’s Long-Term Mating Strategies, 106
Theoretical Background for the Evolution of Mate Preferences, 107
Parental Investment and Sexual Selection, 107
Mate Preferences as Evolved Psychological Mechanisms, 108
The Content of Women’s Mate Preferences, 109
Preference for Economic Resources, 110
Preference for Good Financial Prospects, 111
Preference for High Social Status, 115
Preference for Somewhat Older Men, 117
Preference for Ambition and Industriousness, 118
Preference for Dependability and Stability, 119
Preference for Athletic Prowess, 120
Preference for Good Health and Physical Appearance, 122
Love and Commitment, 124
Preference for Willingness to Invest in Children, 126
Preference for Similarity, 127
Additional Mate Preferences: Humor, Incest Avoidance, and Voice, 128
Context Effects on Women’s Mate Preferences, 129
Effects of Women’s Personal Resources on Mate Preferences, 129
Effects of Temporal Context on Women’s Mate Preferences, 130
Effects of Menstrual Cycle on Mate Preferences, 131
Effects of Women’s Mate Value on Mate Preferences, 132
How Women’s Mate Preferences Affect Actual Mating Behavior, 133
Women’s Responses to Men’s Personal Ads, 133
Women’s Marriages to Men High in Occupational Status, 134
Women’s Marriages to Men Who Are Older, 134
Effects of Women’s Preferences on Men’s Behavior, 135
Summary, 136
Box 4.1 What about Lesbian Sexual Orientation?, 137
Suggested Readings, 138
5. Men’s Long-Term Mating Strategies, 139
Theoretical Background for the Evolution of Men’s Mate Preferences, 139
Why Men Might Benefit from Commitment and Marriage, 139
The Problem of Assessing a Woman’s Fertility or Reproductive Value, 140
The Content of Men’s Mate Preferences, 142
Preference for Youth, 142
Evolved Standards of Physical Beauty, 146
Preference for Body Fat and the Critical Waist-to-Hip Ratio, 150
Sex Differences in the Importance of Physical Appearance, 152
Do Men Have a Preference for Ovulating Women?, 154
Solutions to the Problem of Paternity Uncertainty, 156
Box 5.1 Homosexual Orientation, 159
Context Effects on Men’s Mating Behavior, 160
Men in Positions of Power, 160
Context Effects from Viewing Attractive Models, 162
Testosterone and Men’s Mating Strategies, 163
The Necessities and Luxuries of Mate Preferences, 163
Effect of Men’s Preferences on Actual Mating Behavior, 165
Men’s Responses to Women’s Personal Ads, 165
Age Preferences and Marital Decisions, 165
Effect of Men’s Mate Preferences on Women’s Competition Tactics, 167
Summary, 168
Suggested Readings, 169
6. Short-Term Sexual Strategies, 171
Theories of Men’s Short-Term Mating, 171
Adaptive Benefits for Men of Short-Term Mating, 172
Potential Costs of Short-Term Mating for Men, 172
Box 6.1 Functions versus Beneficial Effects of Short-Term Mating, 173
Adaptive Problems Men Must Solve When Pursuing Short-Term Mating, 173
Evidence for an Evolved Short-Term Mating Psychology, 175
Physiological Evidence for Short-Term Mating, 175
Psychological Evidence for Short-Term Mating, 176
Behavioral Evidence of Short-Term Mating, 182
Women’s Short-Term Mating, 183
Evidence for Women’s Short-Term Mating, 183
Hypotheses about the Adaptive Benefits to Women of Short-Term Mating, 185
Costs to Women of Short-Term Mating, 187
Empirical Tests of Hypothesized Benefits to Women, 188
Context Effects on Short-Term Mating, 192
Individual Differences in Short-Term Mating, 192
Other Contexts Likely to Affect Short-Term Mating, 193
Summary, 195
Suggested Readings, 196
Part Four. Challenges of Parenting and Kinship, 197
7. Problems of Parenting, 198
Why Do Mothers Provide More Parental Care Than Fathers?, 200
The Paternity Uncertainty Hypothesis, 200
The Mating Opportunity Cost Hypothesis, 201
An Evolutionary Perspective on Parental Care, 202
Genetic Relatedness to Offspring, 203
Offspring’s Ability to Convert Parental Care into Reproductive Success, 212
Alternative Uses of Resources Available for Investment in Children, 217
The Theory of Parent–Offspring Conflict, 223
Mother–Offspring Conflict in Utero, 224
The Oedipal Complex Revisited, 225
Box 7.1 Killing Parents and the Asymmetry of Valuing Parents and Children, 227
Summary, 228
Suggested Readings, 229
8. Problems of Kinship, 230
Theory and Implications of Inclusive Fitness, 231
Hamilton’s Rule, 231
Theoretical Implications of Hamilton’s Rule, 232
Empirical Findings that Support the Implications of Inclusive Fitness Theory, 235
Alarm Calling in Ground Squirrels, 236
Kin Recognition and Kin Classifications in Humans, 237
Patterns of Helping in the Lives of Los Angeles Women, 238
Life-or-Death Helping among Humans, 239
Genetic Relatedness and Emotional Closeness: Is Blood Thicker Than Water?, 240
Vigilance over Kin’s Romantic Relationships, 241
Kinship and Stress, 241
Kinship and Survival, 243
Patterns of Inheritance—Who Leaves Wealth to Whom?, 243
Investment by Grandparents, 246
A Broader Perspective on the Evolution of the Family, 250
Box 8.1 Investment by Aunts, Uncles, and Cousins, 251
The Dark Side of Families, 256
Summary, 258
Suggested Readings, 260
Part Five. Problems of Group Living, 263
9. Cooperative Alliances, 264
The Evolution of Cooperation, 264
The Problem of Altruism, 264
A Theory of Reciprocal Altruism, 265
Tit for Tat, 266
Box 9.1 Strategies for Promoting Cooperation, 268
Cooperation among Nonhumans, 268
Food Sharing in Vampire Bats, 269
Chimpanzee Politics, 269
Cooperation among Humans, 270
Social Contract Theory, 270
The Detection of Prospective Altruists, 276
The Psychology of Friendship, 277
Costs and Benefits of Friendship, 283
Cooperative Coalitions, 285
Summary, 288
Suggested Readings, 290
10. Aggression and Warfare, 291
Aggression as a Solution to Adaptive Problems, 292
Coopt the Resources of Others, 292
Defend against Attack, 293
Inflict Costs on Intrasexual Rivals, 294
Negotiate Status and Power Hierarchies, 294
Deter Rivals from Future Aggression, 295
Deter Long-Term Mates from Sexual Infidelity, 295
The Context-Specificity of Aggression, 295
Why Are Men More Violently Aggressive Than Women?, 296
Empirical Evidence for Distinct Adaptive Patterns of Aggression, 299
Evidence for Sex Differences in Same-Sex Aggression, 299
Contexts Triggering Men’s Aggression against Men, 304
Contexts Triggering Women’s Aggression against Women, 305
Contexts Triggering Men’s Aggression against Women, 306
Contexts Triggering Women’s Aggression against Men, 307
Warfare, 308
Box 10.1 Yanomamö Warfare, 309
Do Humans Have Evolved Homicide Mechanisms?, 316
Summary, 320
Suggested Readings, 321
11. Conflict between the Sexes, 322
Strategic Interference Theory, 323
Conflict about the Occurrence and Timing of Sex, 325
Conflict over Sexual Access, 325
Sexual Aggression and Evolved Defenses against Sexual Aggression, 329
Sexual Harassment, 329
Sexual Aggressiveness, 330
Do Men Have Evolved Rape Adaptations?, 331
Individual Differences in Sexual Aggression: The Mate Deprivation Hypothesis, 332
Do Women Have Evolved Antirape Adaptations?, 334
Jealous Conflict, 335
Sex Differences in Jealousy, 336
From Vigilance to Violence: Tactics of Mate Retention, 342
Sex Differences in the Use of Mate-Retention Tactics, 342
Contexts Influencing the Intensity of Mate-Retention Tactics, 344
Violence toward Partners, 347
Conflict over Access to Resources, 349
Causes of Resource Inequality: Women’s Mate Preferences and Men’s Competitive Tactics, 350
Box 11.1 Are All Men United to Control Women?, 351
Summary, 352
Suggested Readings, 354
12. Status, Prestige, and Social Dominance, 355
The Emergence of Dominance Hierarchies, 356
Dominance and Status in Nonhuman Animals, 357
Evolutionary Theories of Dominance, Prestige, and Status, 359
An Evolutionary Theory of Sex Differences in Status Striving, 360
Dominance Theory, 366
Social Attention-Holding Theory, 368
Determinants of Dominance, 370
Box 12.1 Facial Dominance, 373
Self-Esteem as a Status-Tracking Mechanism, 376
Strategies of Submissiveness, 377
Summary, 380
Suggested Readings, 382
Part Six. An Integrated Psychological Science, 383
13. Toward a Unified Evolutionary Psychology, 384
Evolutionary Cognitive Psychology, 385
Attention and Memory, 387
Problem Solving: Heuristics, Biases, and Judgment under Uncertainty, 388
The Evolution of Language, 393
The Evolution of Extraordinary Human Intelligence, 396
Evolutionary Social Psychology, 398
Capitalizing on Evolutionary Theories about Social Phenomena, 399
The Evolution of Moral Emotions, 400
The Return of Group Selection as Multilevel Selection Theory, 402
Evolutionary Developmental Psychology, 403
Theory of Mind Mechanisms, 404
Attachment and Life-History Strategies, 405
Evolutionary Personality Psychology, 407
Alternative Niche Picking or Strategic Specialization, 408
Adaptive Assessment of Heritable Qualities, 409
Frequency-Dependent Adaptive Strategies, 410
Evolutionary Clinical Psychology, 412
Causes of Mechanism Failure, 413
Evolutionary Insights into Problems Erroneously Thought to Be Dysfunctions, 414
Evolutionary Cultural Psychology, 416
Evoked Culture, 417
Transmitted Culture, 419
The Evolution of Art, Fiction, Movies, and Music, 420
Toward a Unified Psychology, 422
Suggested Readings, 423
Bibliography, 425
Index, 463
Photo Credits, 477

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