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Foundations of American Education: Perspectives on Education in a Changing World, Fourteenth Edition

by James A. Johnson; Diann Musial; Gene E. Hall; Donna M. Gollnick; Victor L. Dupuis

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Copyright, iv
List of Features, xix
Preface, xxi
Part I. Professional Perspectives on Education in a Changing World, 1
1. Teaching in a Changing World, 2
Case Study: Heroes Every One, 3
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 4
Today’s Teachers, 5
The Importance of Teachers to Society, 6
The Public View of Teachers and Schools, 6
Who Teaches?, 9
Profile of U.S. Teachers, 10
Remaining in the Profession, 10
Teachers Needed, 11
Teacher Supply, 11
Teacher Demand, 12
Global Perspectives: Teaching Chinese to American Students, 17
Teaching as a Profession, 17
Perspectives on Professional Practice, 17
Professional Knowledge, 17
Professional Skills, 18
Standards, 19
No Child Left Behind, 19
Professional Dilemma: Who Is Cheating Now?, 20
Quality Assurance, 21
Accreditation, 21
Licensure, 22
Advanced Certification, 24
NBPTS, 24
Professional Responsibilities, 24
Developing Professional Commitments and Dispositions, 25
Educator Code of Ethics, 25
Reflecting on One’s Practice, 25
Systematic Observation and Journaling, 26
Informal Note-Taking, 26
Analysis of Practice and Reflection, 26
Reflective Journaling, 26
Folio/Portfolio Development, 27
Relevant Research: Teachers’ Perspectives on Most Rewarding Aspects of Their Work, 29
Challenges Affecting Teachers, 29
Salaries in a Changing World, 29
Salary Differences, 31
Additional Benefits, 31
Recruitment Incentives, 32
Working Conditions, 32
Teacher Perspectives: Should Districts Offer Signing Bonuses to Attract New Teachers?, 33
Beginning and Continuing a Teaching Career, 35
Becoming Licensed, 35
Licensure Tests, 35
Alternative Licensure, 35
Searching for a Teaching Position, 36
Remaining a Teacher, 36
Renewal of Licenses, 37
Summary, 37
Discussion Questions, 38
School-Based Observations, 38
Portfolio Development, 38
Preparing for Certification: The Praxis Series^TM, 38
Websites, 39
Further Reading, 39
Part II. Sociological Foundations of Education, 41
2. Diversity in Society, 42
Case Study: Mother Tongue: Area Schools Find Themselves Teaching English to Thousands of Immigrant Children, 43
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 44
Culture and Society, 45
Characteristics of Culture, 46
Dominant Culture, 47
Group Identity, 47
Acceptance of Diverse Groups, 48
Assimilation, 49
Pluralism, 49
Cultural Choice, 50
Socioeconomic Status, 51
Social Stratification, 51
Class Structure, 52
Poverty, 53
Race and Ethnicity, 54
Race, 55
Ethnicity, 55
Relevant Research: ESL Programs in White Schools, 56
Language, 58
Language Diversity, 58
Dialectal Diversity, 59
Teacher Perspectives: Should All Students Be Bilingual?, 60
Gender, 62
Differences between Females and Males, 62
Global Perspectives: Women’s Political Participation, 63
Title IX, 64
Sexual Orientation, 64
Exceptionalities, 65
Inclusion, 66
Disproportionate Placements, 67
Professional Dilemma: Inclusion of Students with Disabilities, 68
Religion, 68
Summary, 70
Discussion Questions, 72
School-Based Observations, 72
Portfolio Development, 72
Preparing for Certification: The Praxis PLT Test and Diversity, 72
Websites, 73
Further Reading, 73
3. Sociological Perspectives on Students and Families, 74
Case Study: Culture Clash, 75
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 76
Today’s Families, 77
Parenting, 77
Professional Dilemma: What If He Has Two Mommies?, 78
Children Alone, 78
Where Students Live, 80
Rural Communities, 80
Suburban Communities, 81
Urban Communities, 81
Relevant Research: Race in a White School, 82
Challenges of Childhood and Youth, 83
Homelessness, 84
Abuse, 85
Harassment and Bullying, 86
Sexuality, 87
Teenage Pregnancy, 88
Teacher Perspectives: Is Retention Better Than Social Promotion for Students?, 89
Dropping Out, 90
Substance Use, 92
Violence, 93
Economic Realities, 94
Power in Society, 95
Ethnocentrism, 96
Prejudice, 96
Discrimination, 97
Racism, 97
Global Perspectives: Coming to Justice, 99
Sexism and Other Isms, 99
Resiliency, 100
Summary, 100
Discussion Questions, 102
School-Based Observations, 102
Portfolio Development, 102
Preparing for Certification: Student Experiences and Democracy, 102
Websites, 103
Further Reading, 103
4. Multicultural Perspectives in Education, 104
Case Study: Anytown Fires Up Teens to Foster Acceptance, 105
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 106
Roles of Schools, 107
Reproduction, 108
Reconstructionism, 108
Purposes of Schools, 109
Citizenship, 109
Workforce Readiness, 110
Academic Achievement, 110
Social Development, 111
Cultural Transmission, 111
Values in Schools, 112
Whose Values?, 112
Global Perspectives: Universal Values, 113
Multicultural Education, 114
Undergirding Tenets, 114
Diversity, 115
Teacher Perspectives: Is School the Best Place to Teach Tolerance?, 116
Social Justice, 118
Equality, 118
Culturally Relevant Teaching, 120
Building on Cultural Context, 120
Centering the Cultures of Students, 122
Validating Student Voices, 122
Challenges in Multicultural Classrooms, 123
Gender-Sensitive Education, 124
Relevant Research: Boys and Girls in Performance-Based Science Classrooms, 125
Education for Language Diversity, 126
Professional Dilemma: Communicating with Parents of English Language Learners, 128
Teachers as Social Activists, 129
Thinking Critically, 129
Modeling Equity in the Classroom, 129
Making Schools Democratic, 130
Teaching for Social Justice, 131
Global Perspectives: Social Justice in the Canadian Context, 132
Summary, 133
Discussion Questions, 134
School-Based Observations, 134
Portfolio Development, 134
Preparing for Certification: Teaching for Equality, 134
Websites, 135
Further Reading, 135
Part III. Governance, Organization, and Support of American Education, 137
5. Organizing and Paying for American Education in a Changing World, 138
Case Study: Push Is on for Magnet School at Jefferson to Attract Students, 139
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 140
The Structure of the American Education System, 141
The Organization of Schools, 142
School-Based Personnel, 143
Principals, 143
Assistant Principals, 143
Department Heads and Team Leaders, 144
Teachers, 144
School Support Staff, 145
Relevant Research: Does Class Size Make a Difference?, 145
The School Organization Chart, 146
When to Talk to Whom, 146
Organization of the School District, 147
Local Board of Education, 147
Powers and Duties of School Boards, 147
Superintendent of Schools, 148
The Critical Importance of Leadership, 148
Central Office Staff, 148
Organization of Education at the State Level, 149
State Board of Education, 150
State Board Membership, 150
Chief State School Officer, 150
State Department of Education, 151
State Legislature, 152
The Federal Government’s Role in Education, 152
Leadership, 153
The U.S. Department of Education, 154
Educational Programs Operated by the Federal Government, 154
No Child Left Behind (NCLB), 155
Impact of NCLB, 156
Other Types of Education Agencies, 157
Intermediate Units, 157
School Choice: Increasing Options along with Uncertain Outcomes, 157
Magnet Schools, 157
Charter Schools, 158
Year-Round Schools, 158
Vouchers, 159
Private, Parochial, and Independent Schools, 159
Home Schooling, 161
Politics in Education, 161
Teacher Perspectives: Should the School Year Be Longer?, 162
Politics: Neither Positive nor Negative, 164
Issue: Local Control versus Federalism, 164
Professional Dilemma: What Is the Appropriate Role for Teachers When the Politics Get Rough?, 165
Financing Education: Sources of Funds and the Move from Equity to Adequacy, 166
A System of Taxation and Support for Schools, 166
Property Taxes and Local Revenue, 167
State Sources of Revenue and Aid, 169
Recent Challenges to School Finance within the States, 169
Entrepreneurial Efforts to Fund Education, 171
Education Spending, 172
State Aid, 172
General State Aid: Equality of Opportunity, 173
Federal Aid, 174
Accountability, 175
Roots of Accountability, 175
The Importance of Teacher Accountability, 175
Rewards for Being Accountable, 175
Rewarding Teachers and Principals, 175
School and School District Report Cards, 175
Global Perspectives: International Comparisons: Expenditures per Student as an Indicator, 176
Issue: Taxpayer Revolt, 176
Summary, 176
Discussion Questions, 178
School-Based Observations, 178
Portfolio Development, 178
Preparing for Certification: School Organization and Choice, 178
Websites, 179
Further Reading, 179
6. Legal Perspectives of Education, 180
Case Study: The Forum: How One School District Found Religion, 181
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 182
Legal Aspects of Education, 183
Legal Provisions for Education: The U.S. Constitution, 184
Tenth Amendment, 184
First Amendment, 184
Fourteenth Amendment, 185
Church and State, 185
Public Funds and Religious Education, 185
Transportation for Students of Church Schools, 186
The Lemon Test: Excessive Entanglement, 187
Religious Activities in Public Schools, 188
Relevant Research: Changing Strategies: Supporting/Challenging Vouchers, 189
Evolution versus Intelligent Design, 190
Segregation and Desegregation, 193
Professional Dilemma: Should Science Teachers Be Required to Include Religion When Teaching about Evolution?, 194
“Separate but Equal”: No Longer Equal, 194
Release from Court Orders, 195
Achieving Integration in Today’s Diverse Society, 196
Equal Opportunity, 197
Affirmative Action, 198
Opportunities for Students with Disabilities, 198
AIDS as a Disability, 199
Teachers’ Rights and Responsibilities, 199
Conditions of Employment, 200
Teacher Certification and Licensure, 201
Teacher Employment Contracts, 201
Teacher Tenure, 201
Discrimination, 205
Right to Bargain Collectively, 205
Global Perspectives: Legal Aspects of Education in Other Countries, 206
Right to Strike, 206
Academic Freedom, 207
Academic Freedom for Elementary and Secondary Teachers, 208
Book Banning and Censorship, 208
Family Rights and Privacy Act, 209
Teacher Responsibilities and Liabilities, 210
Educational Malpractice, 210
Negligent Chemistry Teacher, 211
Field Trip Negligence, 211
Governmental Immunity from Liability, 211
Liability Insurance, 212
Students’ Rights and Responsibilities, 212
Students’ Rights as Citizens, 214
Students’ Right to an Education, 214
Students’ Right to Sue, 214
Students’ Right to Due Process, 215
Students’ Rights and Responsibilities in School, 217
Dress Codes and Grooming, 217
Corporal Punishment, 217
Teacher Perspectives: Would You Support the Use of Corporal Punishment in Your School?, 218
Sex Discrimination, 218
Marriage and Pregnancy, 219
Child Abuse and Neglect, 220
Student Publications, 220
Rights of Students with Disabilities, 221
Student and Locker Searches, 222
Peer Sexual Harassment, 222
Summary, 223
Discussion Questions, 224
School-Based Observations, 224
Portfolio Development, 224
Preparing for Certification: Teachers’ and Students’ Rights, 224
Websites, 225
Further Reading, 225
Part IV. Historical Perspectives of Education, 227
7. The Early History of Education in a Changing World, 228
Case Study: Teaching Patriotism—With Conviction, 229
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 230
The Beginnings of Education (to 476 CE), 231
Non-Western Education, 231
Hindu Education, 231
Hebrew Education, 231
Global Perspectives: Educational Ideas Borrowed from around the World, 232
Chinese Education, 232
Egyptian Education, 233
Western Education, 233
Socrates, 233
Plato, 234
Aristotle, 234
Roman Schools, 234
Quintilian, 234
Education in the Middle Ages (476–1300), 235
The Dark Ages (400–1000), 235
Charlemagne, 235
Alcuin, 235
The Revival of Learning, 236
Thomas Aquinas, 236
Medieval Universities, 236
Education in Transition (1300–1700), 236
The Renaissance, 237
Vittorino da Feltre, 237
Erasmus, 237
The Reformation, 237
Luther, 237
Ignatius of Loyola, 238
Comenius, 238
Locke, 238
Educational Awakening (1700), 238
The Age of Reason, 238
Teacher Perspectives: Is “Abstinence-Only” the Best Sex Education Policy for Schools to Implement?, 239
Descartes and Voltaire, 240
Frederick the Great, 241
The Emergence of Common Man, 241
Rousseau, 241
Pestalozzi, 241
Herbart, 242
Froebel, 242
Evolving Perspectives of Education in Our Developing Nation, 242
Colonial Education, 242
Southern Colonies, 242
Middle Colonies, 243
Northern Colonies, 243
Early School Laws, 243
Types of Colonial Schools, 244
Early American Colleges, 244
The Struggle for Universal Elementary Education, 244
Monitorial Schools, 244
Horace Mann, 244
Henry Barnard, 245
Reflection on Early U.S. Elementary Education, 245
The Need for Secondary Schools, 245
American Academy, 245
Global Perspectives: Educational Transplantation from Europe, 246
High School, 246
Junior High/Middle School, 246
Relevant Research: Critiquing Historical Sources, 247
The Evolution of Teaching Materials, 247
The Hornbook, 247
The New England Primer, 248
Blue-Backed Speller, 250
Teaching Materials in an Early School, 251
Slates, 251
McGuffey’s Readers, 251
Meager Early Education for Diverse Populations, 251
Education of African Americans, 252
Early Church Efforts to Educate African Americans, 252
Early Schools for African American Children, 253
Frederick Douglass, 253
John Chavis, 253
Prudence Crandall, 253
Booker T. Washington, 254
Early African American Colleges, 254
Asian American Education, 254
Hispanic American Education, 255
Education of Women, 255
Emma Willard, 255
Global Perspectives: Maria Montessori, 256
Ella Flagg Young, 257
Mary McLeod Bethune, 257
The Nineteenth Amendment, 257
Professional Dilemma: How Can the Busy Teacher Keep Up with Historical and Contemporary Research?, 258
Private Education in America, 258
The Right of Private Schools to Exist, 258
Parochial Schools, 259
The Important Role of Private Education in America, 259
Summary, 260
Discussion Questions, 262
School-Based Observations, 262
Portfolio Development, 262
Preparing for Certification: The Evolution of U.S. Schools, 262
Websites, 263
Further Reading, 263
8. Historical Perspectives of Education, 264
Case Study: Casualties of Segregation Receive Honorary Diplomas, 265
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 266
More Students and Bigger Schools, 266
Enrollment Growth, 266
Need for More Schools, 267
Need for More Teachers, 267
School District Consolidation, 267
Growth of Busing, 267
Bigger School Budgets, 268
Rapid Curricular Growth and Changes, 268
Growth of Special Education Programs, 268
Relevant Research: What Have We Learned about Homework and Students with Disabilities?, 269
The Development of the Teaching Profession, 270
Increasing Federal Involvement, 270
GI Bill, 270
National Science Foundation, 271
Categorical Federal Aid, 271
The Struggle for Equal Educational Opportunity, 271
No Child Left Behind (NCLB), 271
The Professionalization of Teaching, 272
Continued Importance of Private Schools, 272
Home Schooling, 272
Continuing/Adult Education, 273
Evolution of Educational Testing, 274
Changing Aims of Education, 274
Committee of Ten, 275
Seven Cardinal Principles, 275
The Eight-Year Study, 275
“Purposes of Education in American Democracy”, 276
“Education for All American Youth”, 276
“Imperative Needs of Youth”, 276
Teacher Perspectives: Should High Schools Prepare All Students for College?, 277
Preparation of Teachers, 278
Colonial Teachers, 278
Global Perspectives: European Beginnings of Teacher Training, 279
Teachers as Indentured Servants, 279
Teaching Apprenticeships, 280
Teacher Training in Academies, 280
Normal Schools, 281
State Teachers’ Colleges, 281
Changes in Mid-Twentieth Century Teacher Education, 282
Recent Trends in Education, 283
New Emphases in Education, 283
Analysis of Teaching, 283
Teacher Effectiveness, 284
Study of the Learning Process, 284
Professional Dilemma: Can a Knowledge of History Help to Improve Multicultural Education?, 285
Global Perspectives: Jean Piaget, 286
B. F. Skinner, 286
Educational Critics, 286
Changing Public Perspectives on Education, 287
Major Educational Events of the Past Century, 287
Summary, 287
Discussion Questions, 289
School-Based Observations, 289
Portfolio Development, 289
Preparing for Certification: Research and Theories of Learning, 289
Websites, 290
Further Reading, 290
Part V. Philosophical Foundations of Education, 291
9. Philosophy: Reflections on the Essence of Education, 292
Case Study: Teacher Resigns over Plagiarism Fight, 293
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 294
Structure and Methodology of Philosophy, 295
The Branches of Philosophy, 295
Metaphysics, 295
Epistemology, 295
Axiology, 296
Thinking as a Philosopher, 296
Analytic Ways of Thinking in Philosophy, 296
Prophetic Ways of Thinking in Philosophy, 299
Professional Dilemma: Should Morals and Values Be Taught in Public Schools?, 300
Schools of Philosophy and Their Influence on Education, 302
Idealism, 302
Educational Implications of Idealism, 302
Plato and Socrates, 302
Immanuel Kant, 303
Jane Roland Martin, 303
Relevant Research: Using Socratic Dialogue to Enhance Reflective Learning, 304
Realism, 304
Educational Implications of Realism, 304
Aristotle, 305
John Locke, 306
Alfred North Whitehead, 306
Pragmatism, 306
Educational Implications of Pragmatism, 306
Charles Sanders Pierce, 307
John Dewey, 307
Richard Rorty, 307
Existentialism, 308
Educational Implications of Existentialism, 308
Jean-Paul Sartre, 309
Friedrich Nietzsche, 309
Maxine Greene, 309
Eastern Ways of Knowing, 309
Teacher Perspectives: Does Prepping for High-Stakes Tests Interfere with Teaching?, 310
Indian Thought, 312
Chinese Thought, 312
Japanese Thought, 312
Global Perspectives: The Fabric of Eastern Ways of Knowing, 313
Educational Implications of Eastern Ways of Knowing, 313
Native North American Ways of Knowing, 313
Navajo Thought, 314
Lakota Thought, 314
Hopi Thought, 314
Educational Implications of Native North American Ways of Knowing, 314
Summary, 315
Discussion Questions, 316
School-Based Observations, 316
Portfolio Development, 316
Preparing for Certification: Philosophical Thinking, 316
Websites, 317
Further Reading, 317
10. Building an Educational Philosophy for a Changing World, 318
Case Study: Scientists Explore the Molding of Children’s Morals, 319
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 320
The Dynamic Relationship between Philosophy and Education, 321
Teacher-Centered Locus-of-Control Educational Theories, 322
Essentialism, 323
Essentialist Focus of Learning, 323
Essentialist Curriculum, 323
Essentialist Class Activity, 323
Essentialist Schools Movement, 324
Behaviorism, 324
Behaviorist Class Activity, 325
Behaviorist Focus of Learning, 325
Reinforcement: A Behaviorist Practice, 325
Positivism, 325
Positivist Focus of Learning, 326
Objective Forced-Choice Testing: A Positivist Requirement, 326
Direct Instruction: A Positivist Approach to Teaching and Learning, 326
Positivist Class Activity, 326
Student-Centered Locus-of-Control Educational Theories, 327
Progressivism, 327
Progressivism and Democracy, 328
Progressivist Class Activity, 328
Critical Pedagogy: A Progressivist Curriculum, 329
Humanism, 329
Humanist Class Activity, 330
Humanistic Curriculum, 330
Humanistic School Environments, 330
Constructivism, 331
Constructivist Curriculum, 331
Professional Dilemma: Should I Use Homogeneous or Heterogeneous Ability Grouping?, 332
Problem-Based Learning: A Constructivist Pedagogy, 332
Constructivist Class Activity, 333
Developing Your Own Philosophy of Education, 333
Classroom Organization, 335
Lesson Planning, 335
The Physical Setting, 335
Student Assessment and Evaluation, 336
Motivation, 336
Relevant Research: Can Children Philosophize?, 337
Discipline, 338
Control or Choice Theory, 339
Assertive Discipline, 341
Discipline with Dignity, 342
Conflict Resolution, 342
Peer Mediation, 342
Rules for Discipline, 342
Classroom Climate, 343
Voice, 343
Space, 344
Learning Focus, 344
Using Philosophy of Education beyond the Classroom, 345
Teachers as Change Agents, 345
Change as Adaptation, 345
Change as Rational Process, 345
Change as Reconstruction, 345
Change as Dialectic, 346
Teachers as Leaders, 346
Teacher Perspectives: Should Teachers Express Their Views on Controversial Topics in Class?, 347
Vision, 348
Modeling, 349
Empowerment, 349
Global Perspectives: The World as a Classroom, 350
Summary, 350
Discussion Questions, 352
School-Based Observations, 352
Portfolio Development, 352
Preparing for Certification: Educational Theories and Learning Climates, 352
Websites, 353
Further Reading, 354
Part VI. Curricular Foundations of Education, 355
11. Standards-Based Education and Assessment of Student Learning, 356
Case Study: State’s Kids Rate Low on Reading Test, National Exam Results Disappoint After Schools’ Efforts to Improve, 357
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 358
Traditional versus Standards-Based Education, 359
Standards-Based Education, 360
Differing Conceptions of Standards, 361
World-Class Standards, 361
Real-World Standards, 362
Discipline-Based or Content Standards, 362
Teacher Perspectives: Should We Reward Good Grades with Money and Prizes?, 363
Other Uses of Standards in Education, 365
Standards for Beginning Teachers (INTASC), 366
Standards for Expert/Master Teacher Certification (NBPTS), 366
Teacher Education Program Accreditation Standards (NCATE), 366
Opportunity-to-Learn Standards, 366
The Common Theme across Standards, 367
No Child Left Behind and Standards, 367
Why Standards Differ, 367
The Future of Standards-Based Education, 368
Assessment: The Other Side of Standards, 369
What Is Assessment?, 369
Purposes for Assessment, 370
Evaluating Student Learning, 370
Diagnosing, 370
Gatekeeping, 371
Traditional Assessments, 371
Norm-Referenced Assessments, 371
Criterion-Referenced Assessments, 372
Capstone/Summative Assessments, 372
Performance Assessment, 372
Designing Authentic Performance Assessments, 374
Basing Assessment in Standards, 374
Selecting an Authentic Context, 374
Making the Assessment Reflective of the Instruction, 375
Rubrics, 375
Basing Assessment in the Discipline, 375
Professional Aspects of Good Assessments, 378
Principles for High-Quality Assessments, 379
Fairness, 379
Reliability and Validity of Assessments, 379
Accountability, 380
Testing Ups and Downs, 380
Relevant Research: Similar Students, Different Results: Why Do Some Schools Do Better?, 381
Professional Dilemma: What Is the Proper Way to Prepare for High-Stakes, State-Mandated Tests?, 382
High-Stakes Testing, 382
Pressures to Cheat, 383
Teaching to the Test, 383
One-Size-Fits-All, 384
The Threat of a National Exam, 384
Global Perspectives: Assessment of Student Learning across Nations, 385
Increased Teacher Burden, 386
Equity within Accountability, 386
Summary, 387
Discussion Questions, 388
School-Based Observations, 388
Portfolio Development, 388
Preparing for Certification: Standards and Assessment, 388
Websites, 389
Further Reading, 389
12. Designing Programs for Learners: Curriculum and Instruction, 390
Case Study: Guidelines for Teaching English Are Adopted, 391
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 392
Curriculum: Relating Expectations for Learning to What Is Taught, 393
Developing Curriculum Is a Process Involving Different Perspectives, 394
Steps in the Curriculum Development Process, 394
Perspective Matters, 394
Some Difficult Curriculum Development Questions, 394
Curriculum Designs, 397
Cocurriculum and Extra-Curriculum, 397
Selecting Curriculum Is a Complex Business, 398
Different Levels of Influence, 398
Curriculum Resources and Selection, 400
Curriculum Libraries and the Web, 400
Textbooks, 400
Global Perspectives: German Education, 401
Curriculum Guides and Course Syllabi, 402
Standards Are the First Place to Look, 402
Tests, 402
Managing Curriculum, 403
The State Role in Managing Curriculum, 403
The District’s Role in Managing Curriculum, 404
Evaluating Curricula, 405
Classroom-Based Curriculum Evaluation, 405
Relevant Research: Some Achievement Gaps Are Narrowing, 406
International Curriculum Evaluation Studies, 407
Instruction: Turning Curriculum into Classroom Activities, 407
Instructional Objectives for Student Learning, 408
Aims, Goals, and Objectives, 408
The Hidden Curriculum, 408
Teacher Perspectives: Should Teachers Allow Students to Use Profanity in Their Writing?, 409
Objectives Are about Student Learning, 410
Different Kinds of Instructional Objectives, 411
Behavioral Objectives, 411
Learning Objectives for the Cognitive Domain, 412
Learning Objectives for the Affective Domain, 412
Learning Objectives for the Psychomotor Domain, 414
Teaching Strategies, 415
Direct Instruction, 415
Indirect Instruction, 415
Student Grouping, 417
Teaching Strategies for Addressing Students with Exceptionalities, 417
Accommodating Students with Special Needs, 418
Classroom Management, 421
Professional Dilemma: Adjusting the Attitude of Learnens, 422
Models for School Reform, 422
School Improvement, 423
Accelerated Schools, 424
Success For All (SFA), 424
Institute for Learning, 424
School Reform Models for High Schools, 425
Multiple Intelligences, 425
Summary, 426
Discussion Questions, 427
School-Based Observations, 427
Portfolio Development, 427
Preparing for Certification: Curriculum and Instruction, 427
Websites, 428
Further Reading, 428
13. Technology in a Changing World, 430
Case Study: Technology: A Class Act, 431
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 432
Technology Basics, 433
Standards, 433
Fundamental Concepts, 434
Computer Hardware, 434
Computer Software, 435
Networks, 436
The Internet, 436
Teachers’ Use of Technology, 437
Outside the Classroom, 437
Teacher–Family Communication, 438
Tracking Student Learning, 438
Lesson Planning, 439
Inside the Classroom, 439
Relevant Research: Social Context in the Use of Computers, 441
Information Resources, 441
Global Perspectives: China’s Filtering of the Internet, 443
Professional Dilemma: Assigning Homework That Uses Technology, 444
Project Development Tools, 444
Collaboration Tools, 445
Distance Education, 445
Issues Related to the Use of Technology, 446
Equality in Access, 446
Teacher Perspectives: Should School Computer Labs Be Phased Out?, 447
Stipulating Student Use, 450
Plagiarism, 451
Copyright, 452
Globalization, 453
A Look Ahead, 453
Summary, 454
Discussion Questions, 456
School-Based Observations, 456
Portfolio Development, 456
Preparing for Certification: Teachers and Technology, 456
Websites, 457
Further Reading, 457
14. Education in the Twenty-First Century, 458
Case Study: Take a Hike, 459
INTASC: Learning Outcomes, 460
The Nature of Change in the Twenty-First Century, 461
Characteristics of Change, 462
Size of Educational Change, 462
Professional Dilemma: How Do I Create an Authentic Learning Environment in the Twenty-First Century Classroom?, 464
Futurism and Transformational Trends in Twenty-First-Century Education, 464
Increased Accountability and Testing Focused on Student Achievement, 465
Providing Safe Schools, 465
Schools as the Center for Delivery of Coordinated Service, 466
Emphasis on Character Development, 467
Increased Competition among Schools, 467
The Changing Profession of Education, 468
Career Development Continuum, 468
Professional Collaboration, 468
Participation in the Profession, 469
Teacher Unions, 469
Professional Associations, 471
Specialty Professional Associations, 471
Global Perspectives: Education International, 472
A Vision for Twenty-First-Century Schools, 472
Professional Learning Communities, 472
Relevant Research: Can Groups Learn?, 473
Classrooms as Dynamic Centers of Learning, 474
New Forms of Teacher Leadership, 474
Teacher Perspectives: Will Public Education Survive the Next Century?, 475
Summary, 477
Discussion Questions, 478
School-Based Observations, 478
Portfolio Development, 478
Preparing for Certification: Professional Relationships and Standards, 478
Websites, 479
Further Reading, 479
Appendixes, 481
Appendix A. State Certification and Licensure Offices throughout the United States, 481
Appendix B. Code of Ethics of the Education Profession, 483
Appendix C. Teaching Job Websites, 485
Appendix D. Important Dates in the History of Western Education, 487
Appendix E. Professional Education Associations: A Selected List, 491
Notes, 493
Name Index, 499
Subject Index, 502
Photo Credits, 514

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