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Copyright, ii
Preface, xxii
To the Student, xxix
About the Author, xxx
Part One. What Is Biopsychology?, 1
1. Biopsychology as a Neuroscience: What Is Biopsychology, Anyway?, 1
The Case of Jimmie G., the Man Frozen in Time, 2
Four Major Themes of This Book, 3
1.1. What Is Biopsychology?, 3
1.2. What Is the Relation between Biopsychology and the Other Disciplines of Neuroscience?, 4
1.3. What Types of Research Characterize the Biopsychological Approach?, 4
Human and Nonhuman Subjects, 4
Experiments and Nonexperiments, 5
Pure and Applied Research, 7
1.4. What Are the Divisions of Biopsychology?, 8
Physiological Psychology, 9
Psychopharmacology, 9
Neuropsychology, 9
The Case of Mr. R., the Brain-Damaged Student Who Switched to Architecture, 9
Psychophysiology, 9
Cognitive Neuroscience, 10
Comparative Psychology, 11
1.5. Converging Operations: How Do Biopsychologists Work Together?, 12
1.6. Scientific Inference: How Do Biopsychologists Study the Unobservable Workings of the Brain?, 13
1.7. Critical Thinking about Biopsychological Claims, 14
Case 1: José and the Bull, 15
Case 2: Becky, Moniz, and Prefrontal Lobotomy, 15
Themes Revisited, 17
Think about It, 18
Key Terms, 18
Part Two. Foundations of Biopsychology, 19
2. Evolution, Genetics, and Experience: Thinking about the Biology of Behavior, 19
2.1. Thinking about the Biology of Behavior: From Dichotomies to Relations and Interactions, 20
Is It Physiological, or Is It Psychological?, 20
Is It Inherited, or Is It Learned?, 20
Problems with Thinking about the Biology of Behavior in Terms of Traditional Dichotomies, 21
The Case of the Man Who Fell Out of Bed, 21
The Case of the Chimps and the Mirrors, 22
The Case of the Thinking Student, 23
2.2. Human Evolution, 23
Evolution and Behavior, 25
Course of Human Evolution, 26
Thinking about Human Evolution, 30
Evolution of the Human Brain, 32
Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding Mate Bonding, 32
Thinking about Evolutionary Psychology, 34
2.3. Fundamental Genetics, 35
Mendelian Genetics, 35
Chromosomes: Reproduction, Linkage, and Recombination, 36
Chromosomes: Structure and Replication, 37
Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Traits, 39
The Genetic Code and Gene Expression, 40
Mitochondrial DNA, 41
Modern Genetics, 42
2.4. Behavioral Development: The Interaction of Genetic Factors and Experience, 44
Selective Breeding of “Maze-Bright” and “Maze-Dull” Rats, 44
Phenylketonuria: A Single-Gene Metabolic Disorder, 45
Development of Birdsong, 46
2.5. The Genetics of Human Psychological Differences, 47
Development of Individuals versus Development of Differences among Individuals, 47
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, 47
Themes Revisited, 49
Think about It, 50
Key Terms, 50
3. The Anatomy of the Nervous System: The Systems, Structures, and Cells That Make Up Your Nervous System, 51
3.1. General Layout of the Nervous System, 52
Divisions of the Nervous System, 52
Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid, 54
Blood–Brain Barrier, 54
3.2. Cells of the Nervous System, 56
Anatomy of Neurons, 56
Glial Cells: The Forgotten Majority, 58
3.3. Neuroanatomical Techniques and Directions, 60
Neuroanatomical Techniques, 60
Directions in the Vertebrate Nervous System, 62
3.4. The Spinal Cord, 64
3.5. The Five Major Divisions of the Brain, 64
3.6. Major Structures of the Brain, 65
Myelencephalon, 65
Metencephalon, 66
Mesencephalon, 66
Diencephalon, 67
Telencephalon, 67
The Limbic System and the Basal Ganglia, 70
Themes Revisited, 74
Think about It, 75
Key Terms, 75
4. Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission: How Neurons Send and Receive Signals, 76
The Lizard, a Case of Parkinson’s Disease, 77
4.1. The Neuron’s Resting Membrane Potential, 77
Recording the Membrane Potential, 77
The Resting Membrane Potential, 77
The Ionic Basis of the Resting Potential, 78
4.2. Generation and Conduction of Postsynaptic Potentials, 80
4.3. Integration of Postsynaptic Potentials and Generation of Action Potentials, 81
4.4. Conduction of Action Potentials, 83
The Ionic Basis of Action Potentials, 83
Refractory Periods, 84
Axonal Conduction of Action Potentials, 84
Conduction in Myelinated Axons, 85
The Velocity of Axonal Conduction, 85
Conduction in Neurons without Axons, 85
The Hodgkin-Huxley Model and the Changing View of Dendritic Function, 85
4.5. Synaptic Transmission: Chemical Transmission of Signals from One Neuron to Another, 86
Structure of Synapses, 86
Synthesis, Packaging, and Transport of Neurotransmitter Molecules, 87
Release of Neurotransmitter Molecules, 88
Activation of Receptors by Neurotransmitter Molecules, 89
Reuptake, Enzymatic Degradation, and Recycling, 90
Glial Function and Synaptic Transmission, 91
4.6. The Neurotransmitters, 92
Amino Acid Neurotransmitters, 92
Monoamine Neurotransmitters, 92
Acetylcholine, 93
Unconventional Neurotransmitters, 93
Neuropeptides, 94
4.7. Pharmacology of Synaptic Transmission and Behavior, 95
How Drugs Influence Synaptic Transmission, 95
Behavioral Pharmacology: Three Influential Lines of Research, 95
Themes Revisited, 99
Think about It, 99
Key Terms, 99
5. The Research Methods of Biopsychology: Understanding What Biopsychologists Do, 101
The Ironic Case of Professor P., 102
Part One Methods of Studying the Nervous System, 102
5.1. Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain, 102
Contrast X-Rays, 103
X-Ray Computed Tomography, 103
Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 104
Positron Emission Tomography, 104
Functional MRI, 105
Magnetoencephalography, 106
Brain-Image Archives, 106
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, 107
5.2. Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity, 107
Scalp Electroencephalography, 107
Muscle Tension, 109
Eye Movement, 110
Skin Conductance, 110
Cardiovascular Activity, 110
5.3. Invasive Physiological Research Methods, 111
Stereotaxic Surgery, 111
Lesion Methods, 112
Electrical Stimulation, 113
Invasive Electrophysiological Recording Methods, 113
5.4. Pharmacological Research Methods, 114
Routes of Drug Administration, 115
Selective Chemical Lesions, 115
Measuring Chemical Activity of the Brain, 115
Locating Neurotransmitters and Receptors in the Brain, 116
5.5. Genetic Engineering, 117
Gene Knockout Techniques, 117
Gene Replacement Techniques, 117
Part Two Behavioral Research Methods of Biopsychology, 118
5.6. Neuropsychological Testing, 118
Modern Approach to Neuropsychological Testing, 118
Tests of the Common Neuropsychological Test Battery, 119
Tests of Specific Neuropsychological Function, 121
Frontal-Lobe Function, 121
5.7. Behavioral Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience, 122
5.8. Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior, 123
Paradigms for Assessment of Species-Common Behaviors, 123
Traditional Conditioning Paradigms, 124
Seminatural Animal Learning Paradigms, 124
Themes Revisited, 127
Think about It, 127
Key Terms, 127
Part Three. Sensory and Motor Systems, 129
6. The Visual System: How We See, 129
The Case of Mrs. Richards: Fortification Illusions and the Astronomer, 130
6.1. Light Enters the Eye and Reaches the Retina, 131
The Pupil and the Lens, 131
Eye Position and Binocular Disparity, 132
6.2. The Retina and Translation of Light into Neural Signals, 134
Cone and Rod Vision, 135
Spectral Sensitivity, 137
Eye Movement, 138
Visual Transduction: The Conversion of Light to Neural Signals, 139
6.3. From Retina to Primary Visual Cortex, 140
Retinotopic Organization, 141
The M and P Channels, 141
6.4. Seeing Edges, 142
Lateral Inhibition and Contrast Enhancement, 142
Receptive Fields of Visual Neurons, 143
Receptive Fields: Neurons of the Retina-Geniculate-Striate System, 144
Receptive Fields: Simple Cortical Cells, 145
Receptive Fields: Complex Cortical Cells, 146
Columnar Organization of Primary Visual Cortex, 146
The Case of Mrs. Richards, Revisited, 148
Plasticity of Receptive Fields of Neurons in the Visual Cortex, 149
6.5. Seeing Color, 149
Component and Opponent Processing, 149
Color Constancy and the Retinex Theory, 150
6.6. Cortical Mechanisms of Vision and Conscious Awareness, 153
Damage to Primary Visual Cortex: Scotomas and Completion, 153
The Case of the Physiological Psychologist Who Made Faces Disappear, 154
Damage to Primary Visual Cortex: Scotomas, Blindsight, and Conscious Awareness, 154
The Case of D.B., the Man Confused by His Own Blindsight, 154
Functional Areas of Secondary and Association Visual Cortex, 155
Dorsal and Ventral Streams, 155
The Case of D.F., the Woman Who Could Grasp Objects She Did Not Consciously See, 157
The Case of A.T., the Woman Who Could Not Accurately Grasp Unfamiliar Objects That She Saw, 158
Prosopagnosia, 158
R.P., a Typical Case of Prosopagnosia, 159
Conclusion, 159
Themes Revisited, 159
Think about It, 160
Key Terms, 160
7. Mechanisms of Perception: Hearing, Touch, Smell, Taste, and Attention: How You Know the World, 161
The Case of the Man Who Could See Only One Thing at a Time, 162
7.1. Principles of Sensory System Organization, 162
Hierarchical Organization, 162
The Case of the Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, 163
Functional Segregation, 163
Parallel Processing, 163
The Current Model of Sensory System Organization, 163
7.2. The Auditory System, 164
The Ear, 165
From the Ear to the Primary Auditory Cortex, 167
Subcortical Mechanisms of Sound Localization, 167
Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex, 168
Effects of Damage to the Auditory System, 170
7.3. The Somatosensory System: Touch and Pain, 171
Cutaneous Receptors, 171
Dermatomes, 172
The Two Major Somatosensory Pathways, 173
Cortical Areas of Somatosensation, 174
Effects of Damage to the Primary Somatosensory Cortex, 175
The Somatosensory System and Association Cortex, 176
The Case of W.M., Who Reduced His Scotoma with His Hand, 176
Somatosensory Agnosias, 176
The Case of Aunt Betty, Who Lost Half of Her Body, 176
The Perception of Pain, 177
The Case of Miss C., the Woman Who Felt No Pain, 177
Neuropathic Pain, 179
7.4. The Chemical Senses: Smell and Taste, 179
The Olfactory System, 180
The Gustatory System, 181
Brain Damage and the Chemical Senses, 182
7.5. Selective Attention, 183
Change Blindness, 184
Neural Mechanisms of Attention, 184
Simultanagnosia, 185
Themes Revisited, 185
Think about It, 186
Key Terms, 186
8. The Sensorimotor System: How You Move, 187
The Case of Rhonda, the Dexterous Cashier, 188
8.1. Three Principles of Sensorimotor Function, 188
The Sensorimotor System Is Hierarchically Organized, 188
Motor Output Is Guided by Sensory Input, 189
The Case of G.O., the Man with Too Little Feedback, 189
Learning Changes the Nature and Locus of Sensorimotor Control, 189
A General Model of Sensorimotor System Function, 189
8.2. Sensorimotor Association Cortex, 190
Posterior Parietal Association Cortex, 190
The Case of Mrs. S., the Woman Who Turned in Circles, 191
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association Cortex, 193
8.3. Secondary Motor Cortex, 193
Identifying the Areas of Secondary Motor Cortex, 193
Mirror Neurons, 194
8.4. Primary Motor Cortex, 195
Belle: The Monkey That Controlled a Robot with Her Mind, 197
8.5. Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia, 197
Cerebellum, 198
Basal Ganglia, 198
8.6. Descending Motor Pathways, 199
Dorsolateral Corticospinal Tract and Dorsolateral Corticorubrospinal Tract, 199
Ventromedial Corticospinal Tract and Ventromedial Cortico-brainstem-spinal Tract, 199
Comparison of the Two Dorsolateral Motor Pathways and the Two Ventromedial Motor Pathways, 201
8.7. Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits, 202
Muscles, 202
Receptor Organs of Tendons and Muscles, 203
Stretch Reflex, 204
Withdrawal Reflex, 205
Reciprocal Innervation, 205
Recurrent Collateral Inhibition, 207
Walking: A Complex Sensorimotor Reflex, 208
8.8. Central Sensorimotor Programs, 208
Central Sensorimotor Programs Are Capable of Motor Equivalence, 209
Sensory Information That Controls Central Sensorimotor Programs Is Not Necessarily Conscious, 209
Central Sensorimotor Programs Can Develop without Practice, 209
Practice Can Create Central Sensorimotor Programs, 210
Functional Brain Imaging of Sensorimotor Learning, 210
The Case of Rhonda, Revisited, 211
Themes Revisited, 212
Think about It, 212
Key Terms, 213
Part Four. Brain Plasticity, 214
9. Development of the Nervous System: From Fertilized Egg to You, 214
The Case of Genie, 215
9.1. Phases of Neurodevelopment, 215
Induction of the Neural Plate, 215
Neural Proliferation, 217
Migration and Aggregation, 217
Axon Growth and Synapse Formation, 219
Neuron Death and Synapse Rearrangement, 221
9.2. Postnatal Cerebral Development in Human Infants, 223
Postnatal Growth of the Human Brain, 223
Development of the Prefrontal Cortex, 224
9.3. Effects of Experience on the Early Development, Maintenance, and Reorganization of Neural Circuits, 225
Early Studies of Experience and Neurodevelopment: Deprivation and Enrichment, 225
Competitive Nature of Experience and Neurodevelopment: Ocular Dominance Columns, 225
Effects of Experience on Topographic Sensory Cortex Maps, 226
Mechanisms by Which Experience Might Influence Neurodevelopment, 226
9.4. Neuroplasticity in Adults, 227
Neurogenesis in Adult Mammals, 227
Effects of Experience on the Reorganization of the Adult Cortex, 228
9.5. Disorders of Neurodevelopment: Autism and Williams Syndrome, 229
Autism, 229
The Case of Alex: Are You Ready to Rock?, 229
Cases of Amazing Savant Abilities, 230
Williams Syndrome, 232
The Case of Anne Louise McGarrah: The Uneven Abilities of Those with Williams Syndrome, 233
Epilogue, 234
Themes Revisited, 235
Think about It, 235
Key Terms, 235
10. Brain Damage and Neuroplasticity: Can the Brain Recover from Damage?, 236
The Ironic Case of Professor P., 237
10.1. Causes of Brain Damage, 237
Brain Tumors, 237
Cerebrovascular Disorders: Strokes, 238
Closed-Head Injuries, 240
The Case of Jerry Quarry, Ex-Boxer, 241
Infections of the Brain, 241
Neurotoxins, 242
Genetic Factors, 242
Programmed Cell Death, 243
10.2. Neuropsychological Diseases, 243
Epilepsy, 243
The Subtlety of Complex Partial Seizures: Two Cases, 244
Parkinson’s Disease, 245
Huntington’s Disease, 246
Multiple Sclerosis, 246
Alzheimer’s Disease, 247
10.3. Animal Models of Human Neuropsychological Diseases, 249
Kindling Model of Epilepsy, 249
Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimer’s Disease, 250
MPTP Model of Parkinson’s Disease, 250
The Case of the Frozen Addicts, 250
10.4. Neuroplastic Responses to Nervous System Damage: Degeneration, Regeneration, Reorganization, and Recovery, 251
Neural Degeneration, 251
Neural Regeneration, 253
Neural Reorganization, 254
Recovery of Function after Brain Damage, 255
10.5. Neuroplasticity and the Treatment of Nervous System Damage, 257
Reducing Brain Damage by Blocking Neurodegeneration, 257
Promoting Recovery from CNS Damage by Promoting Regeneration, 257
Promoting Recovery from CNS Damage by Neurotransplantation, 258
The Case of Roberto Garcia d’Orta: The Lizard Gets an Autotransplant, 259
Promoting Recovery from CNS Damage by Rehabilitative Training, 259
The Cases of Tom and Philip: Phantom Limbs and Ramachandran, 260
The Ironic Case of Professor P.: Recovery, 261
Themes Revisited, 262
Think about It, 262
Key Terms, 263
11. Learning, Memory, and Amnesia: How Your Brain Stores Information, 264
11.1. Amnesic Effects of Bilateral Medial Temporal Lobectomy, 265
The Case of H.M., the Man Who Changed the Study of Memory, 265
Formal Assessment of H.M.’s Anterograde Amnesia, 266
Scientific Contributions of H.M.’s Case, 267
Medial Temporal Lobe Amnesia, 268
Semantic and Episodic Memories, 269
The Case of K.C., the Man Who Can’t Time Travel, 269
The Case of the Clever Neuropsychologist: Spotting Episodic Memory Deficits, 270
Effects of Cerebral Ischemia on the Hippocampus and Memory, 270
The Case of R.B., the Product of a Bungled Operation, 270
11.2. Amnesia of Korsakoff’s Syndrome, 271
The Up-Your-Nose Case of N.A., 271
11.3. Amnesia of Alzheimer’s Disease, 272
11.4. Amnesia after Concussion: Evidence for Consolidation, 272
Posttraumatic Amnesia, 272
Gradients of Retrograde Amnesia and Memory Consolidation, 273
Reconsolidation, 274
The Hippocampus and Consolidation, 275
11.5. Neuroanatomy of Object-Recognition Memory, 275
Monkey Model of Object-Recognition Amnesia: The Delayed Nonmatching-to-Sample Test, 276
The Delayed Nonmatching-to-Sample Test for Rats, 277
Neuroanatomical Basis of the Object-Recognition Deficits Resulting from Medial Temporal Lobectomy, 278
11.6. The Hippocampus and Memory for Spatial Location, 281
Hippocampal Lesions Disrupt Spatial Memory, 281
Hippocampal Place Cells, 281
Comparative Studies of the Hippocampus and Spatial Memory, 282
Theories of Hippocampal Function, 282
11.7. Where Are Memories Stored?, 283
Inferotemporal Cortex, 283
Amygdala, 283
Prefrontal Cortex, 284
The Case of the Cook Who Couldn’t, 284
Cerebellum and Striatum, 284
11.8. Synaptic Mechanisms of Learning and Memory, 285
Long-Term Potentiation, 285
Induction of LTP: Learning, 287
Maintenance and Expression of LTP: Storage and Recall, 288
Variability of LTP, 290
11.9. Conclusion: Infantile Amnesia and the Biopsychologist Who Remembered H.M., 290
Infantile Amnesia, 290
Posttraumatic Amnesia and Episodic Memory, 291
The Case of R.M., the Biopsychologist Who Remembered H.M., 291
Themes Revisited, 291
Think about It, 292
Key Terms, 292
Part Five. Biopsychology of Motivation, 293
12. Hunger, Eating, and Health: Why Do Many People Eat Too Much?, 293
The Case of the Man Who Forgot Not to Eat, 294
12.1. Digestion, Energy Storage, and Energy Utilization, 294
Digestion, 294
Energy Storage in the Body, 295
Three Phases of Energy Metabolism, 296
12.2. Theories of Hunger and Eating: Set Points versus Positive Incentives, 297
Set-Point Assumption, 297
Glucostatic and Lipostatic Set-Point Theories of Hunger and Eating, 298
Problems with Set-Point Theories of Hunger and Eating, 298
Positive-Incentive Perspective, 299
12.3. Factors That Determine What, When, and How Much We Eat, 300
Factors That Determine What We Eat, 300
Factors That Influence When We Eat, 300
Factors That Influence How Much We Eat, 301
12.4. Physiological Research on Hunger and Satiety, 303
Role of Blood Glucose Levels in Hunger and Satiety, 304
Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers, 304
Role of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Satiety, 306
Hunger and Satiety Peptides, 307
Serotonin and Satiety, 308
Prader-Willi Syndrome: The Case of Miss A., 308
12.5. Body Weight Regulation: Set Points versus Settling Points, 309
Set-Point Assumptions about Body Weight and Eating, 309
Set Points and Settling Points in Weight Control, 311
12.6. Human Obesity: Causes, Treatments, and Mechanisms, 313
Why Is There an Epidemic of Obesity?, 313
Why Do Some People Become Obese While Others Do Not?, 313
Why Are Weight-Loss Programs Typically Ineffective?, 314
Leptin and the Regulation of Body Fat, 315
The Case of the Child with No Leptin, 315
Serotonergic Drugs and the Treatment of Obesity, 316
12.7. Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa, 316
The Relation between Anorexia and Bulimia, 317
Anorexia and Positive Incentives, 317
Anorexia Nervosa: A Hypothesis, 317
The Case of the Anorexic Student, 318
Themes Revisited, 319
Think about It, 319
Key Terms, 319
13. Hormones and Sex: What’s Wrong with the Mamawawa?, 320
The Developmental and Activational Effects of Sex Hormones, 321
The Men-Are-Men-and-Women-Are-Women Assumption, 321
13.1. The Neuroendocrine System, 321
Glands, 322
Classes of Hormones, 322
Gonads, 322
Sex Steroids, 322
Hormones of the Pituitary, 323
Female Gonadal Hormone Levels Are Cyclic; Male Gonadal Hormone Levels Are Steady, 323
Neural Control of the Pituitary, 324
Control of the Anterior and Posterior Pituitary by the Hypothalamus, 324
Discovery of Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones, 325
Regulation of Hormone Levels, 326
Pulsatile Hormone Release, 326
A Summary Model of Gonadal Endocrine Regulation, 326
13.2. Hormones and Sexual Development, 327
Fetal Hormones and the Development of Reproductive Organs, 327
Sex Differences in the Brain, 329
Perinatal Hormones and Behavioral Development, 331
Puberty: Hormones and the Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics, 331
13.3. Three Cases of Exceptional Human Sexual Development, 333
The Case of Anne S., the Woman Who Wasn’t, 333
The Case of the Little Girl Who Grew into a Boy, 334
The Case of the Twin Who Lost His Penis, 335
Do the Exceptional Cases Prove the Rule?, 336
13.4. Effects of Gonadal Hormones on Adults, 336
Male Reproduction-Related Behavior and Testosterone, 336
The Case of the Man Who Lost and Regained His Manhood, 337
Female Reproduction-Related Behavior and Gonadal Hormones, 337
Anabolic Steroid Abuse, 338
The Neuroprotective Effects of Estradiol, 340
13.5. Neural Mechanisms of Sexual Behavior, 340
Structural Differences between the Male Hypothalamus and the Female Hypothalamus, 341
The Hypothalamus and Male Sexual Behavior, 342
The Hypothalamus and Female Sexual Behavior, 342
13.6. Sexual Orientation, Hormones, and the Brain, 343
Sexual Orientation and Genes, 343
Sexual Orientation and Early Hormones, 343
What Triggers the Development of Sexual Attraction?, 344
Is There a Difference in the Brains of Homosexuals and Heterosexuals?, 344
Transsexualism, 344
The Independence of Sexual Orientation and Sexual Identity, 345
Themes Revisited, 345
Think about It, 346
Key Terms, 346
14. Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms: How Much Do You Need to Sleep?, 347
The Case of the Woman Who Wouldn’t Sleep, 348
14.1. The Psychophysiological Measures and Stages of Sleep, 348
The Three Standard Psychophysiological Measures of Sleep, 348
Four Stages of Sleep EEG, 349
14.2. REM Sleep and Dreaming, 350
Testing Common Beliefs about Dreaming, 351
The Interpretation of Dreams, 351
14.3. Why Do We Sleep, and Why Do We Sleep When We Do?, 351
14.4. Comparative Analysis of Sleep, 352
14.5. Circadian Sleep Cycles, 353
Free-Running Circadian Sleep–Wake Cycles, 353
Jet Lag and Shift Work, 354
14.6. Effects of Sleep Deprivation, 355
Personal Experience of Sleep Deprivation: A Cautionary Note, 356
Two Classic Sleep-Deprivation Case Studies, 356
The Case of the Sleep-Deprived Students, 356
The Case of Randy Gardner, 356
Experimental Studies of Sleep Deprivation in Humans, 357
Sleep-Deprivation Studies with Laboratory Animals, 357
REM-Sleep Deprivation, 358
Sleep Deprivation Increases the Efficiency of Sleep, 359
14.7. Four Areas of the Brain Involved in Sleep, 360
Two Areas of the Hypothalamus Involved in Sleep, 360
The Case of Constantin von Economo, the Insightful Neurologist, 360
Reticular Activating System and Sleep, 360
Reticular REM-Sleep Nuclei, 362
14.8. The Circadian Clock: Neural and Molecular Mechanisms, 363
Location of the Circadian Clock in the Suprachiasmatic Nuclei, 363
Mechanisms of Entrainment, 363
Genetics of Circadian Rhythms, 364
14.9. Drugs That Affect Sleep, 364
Hypnotic Drugs, 364
Antihypnotic Drugs, 365
Melatonin, 365
14.10. Sleep Disorders, 366
Insomnia, 366
Mr. B., the Case of Iatrogenic Insomnia, 366
Hypersomnia, 367
REM-Sleep–Related Disorders, 368
The Case of the Sleeper Who Ran Over Tackle, 368
14.11. The Effects of Long-Term Sleep Reduction, 368
Long-Term Reduction of Nightly Sleep, 369
Long-Term Sleep Reduction by Napping, 369
Long-Term Sleep Reduction: A Personal Case Study, 370
The Case of the Author Who Reduced His Sleep, 370
Effects of Shorter Sleep Times on Health, 370
Conclusion, 371
Themes Revisited, 371
Think about It, 372
Key Terms, 372
15. Drug Addiction and the Brain’s Reward Circuits: Chemicals That Harm with Pleasure, 373
The Case of the Drugged High School Teachers, 374
15.1. Basic Principles of Drug Action, 374
Drug Administration and Absorption, 374
Drug Penetration of the Central Nervous System, 375
Mechanisms of Drug Action, 375
Drug Metabolism and Elimination, 375
Drug Tolerance, 375
Drug Withdrawal Effects and Physical Dependence, 376
Addiction: What Is It?, 376
15.2. Role of Learning in Drug Tolerance, 377
Contingent Drug Tolerance, 377
Conditioned Drug Tolerance, 378
Thinking about Drug Conditioning, 379
15.3. Five Commonly Abused Drugs, 379
Tobacco, 379
Alcohol, 380
Marijuana, 381
Cocaine and Other Stimulants, 383
The Opiates: Heroin and Morphine, 384
Comparison of the Hazards of Tobacco, Alcohol, Marijuana, Cocaine, and Heroin, 387
The Drug Dilemmas: Striking the Right Balance, 388
15.4. Biopsychological Approaches to Theories of Addiction, 388
Physical-Dependence and Positive-Incentive Perspectives of Addiction, 389
From Pleasure to Compulsion: Incentive-Sensitization Theory, 389
Relapse and Its Causes, 389
15.5. Intracranial Self-Stimulation and the Pleasure Centers of the Brain, 390
Fundamental Characteristics of Intracranial Self-Stimulation, 391
Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System and Intracranial Self-Stimulation, 392
15.6. Early Studies of Brain Mechanisms of Addiction: Dopamine, 393
Two Key Methods for Measuring Drug-Produced Reinforcement in Laboratory Animals, 393
Early Evidence of the Involvement of Dopamine in Drug Addiction, 394
The Nucleus Accumbens and Drug Addiction, 394
Support for the Involvement of Dopamine in Addiction: Evidence from the Imaging of Human Brains, 394
Dopamine Release in the Nucleus Accumbens: Reward or Expectation of Reward?, 394
15.7. Current Approaches to Brain Mechanisms of Addiction, 395
Brain Mechanisms of Addiction: Recent Developments, 396
Brain Structures That Mediate Addiction: The Current View, 396
15.8. A Noteworthy Case of Addiction, 397
The Case of Sigmund Freud, 397
Themes Revisited, 398
Think about It, 398
Key Terms, 398
Part Six. Disorders of Cognition and Emotion, 400
16. Lateralization, Language, and the Split Brain: The Left Brain and the Right Brain of Language, 400
16.1. Cerebral Lateralization of Function: Introduction, 401
Discovery of the Specific Contributions of Left-Hemisphere Damage to Aphasia and Apraxia, 402
Tests of Cerebral Lateralization, 402
Discovery of the Relation between Speech Laterality and Handedness, 403
Sex Differences in Brain Lateralization, 403
16.2. The Split Brain, 404
Groundbreaking Experiment of Myers and Sperry, 404
Commissurotomy in Human Epileptics, 406
Evidence That the Hemispheres of Split-Brain Patients Can Function Independently, 407
Cross-Cuing, 407
Doing Two Things at Once, 408
The Z Lens, 408
Dual Mental Functioning and Conflict in Split-Brain Patients, 409
The Case of Peter, the Split-Brain Patient Tormented by Conflict, 409
Independence of Split Hemispheres: Current Perspective, 410
16.3. Differences between the Left and Right Hemispheres, 410
Slight Biases versus All-or-None Hemispheric Differences, 411
Examples of Cerebral Lateralization of Function, 411
What Is Lateralized—Broad Clusters of Abilities or Individual Cognitive Processes?, 413
Anatomical Asymmetries of the Brain, 414
Theories of Cerebral Lateralization of Function: Why Did Cerebral Lateralization Evolve?, 415
The Case of W.L., the Man Who Experienced Aphasia for Sign Language, 416
Evidence of Cerebral Lateralization in Nonhumans, 416
16.4. Cortical Localization of Language: The Wernicke-Geschwind Model, 417
Historical Antecedents of the Wernicke-Geschwind Model, 417
The Wernicke-Geschwind Model, 418
16.5. Evaluation of the Wernicke-Geschwind Model, 419
Effects of Damage to Various Areas of Cortex on Language-Related Abilities, 420
Electrical Stimulation of the Cortex and Localization of Language, 422
Current Status of the Wernicke-Geschwind Model, 424
16.6. Cognitive Neuroscience Approach to Language, 424
Functional Brain Imaging and the Localization of Language, 425
16.7. Cognitive Neuroscience Approach to Dyslexia, 426
Developmental Dyslexia: Causes and Neural Mechanisms, 427
Developmental Dyslexia: Cultural Diversity and Biological Unity, 427
Cognitive Neuroscience Analysis of Reading Aloud: Deep and Surface Dyslexia, 428
The Case of N.I., the Woman Who Read with Her Right Hemisphere, 428
Themes Revisited, 429
Think about It, 429
Key Terms, 430
17. Biopsychology of Emotion, Stress, and Health: Fear, the Dark Side of Emotion, 431
17.1. Biopsychology of Emotion: Introduction, 432
Early Landmarks in the Biopsychological Investigation of Emotion, 432
The Mind-Blowing Case of Phineas Gage, 432
A Human Case of Kluver-Bucy Syndrome, 435
Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System, 436
Emotions and Facial Expression, 436
17.2. Fear, Defense, and Aggression, 439
Types of Aggressive and Defensive Behaviors, 439
Aggression and Testosterone, 441
17.3. Neural Mechanisms of Fear Conditioning, 441
Amygdala and Fear Conditioning, 442
Contextual Fear Conditioning and the Hippocampus, 442
Lateral Nucleus of the Amygdala and Fear Conditioning, 443
17.4. Stress and Health, 443
The Stress Response, 444
Animal Models of Stress, 444
Stress and Gastric Ulcers, 445
Psychoneuroimmunology: Stress, the Immune System, and the Brain, 445
Early Experience of Stress, 449
Stress and the Hippocampus, 449
17.5. Brain Mechanisms of Human Emotion, 450
Specific Role of the Amygdala in Human Emotion, 450
The Case of S.P., the Woman Who Couldn’t Perceive Fear, 450
Specific Role of the Medial Prefrontal Lobes in Human Emotion, 451
Lateralization of Emotion, 451
Individual Differences in the Neural Mechanisms of Emotion, 452
The Case of Charles Whitman, the Texas Tower Sniper, 453
Themes Revisited, 453
Think about It, 454
Key Terms, 454
18. Biopsychology of Psychiatric Disorders: The Brain Unhinged, 455
18.1. Schizophrenia, 456
The Case of Lena, the Catatonic Schizophrenic, 456
What Is Schizophrenia?, 457
Causal Factors in Schizophrenia, 457
Discovery of the First Antischizophrenic Drugs, 458
Dopamine Theory of Schizophrenia, 458
Current Research on the Neural Basis of Schizophrenia, 459
18.2. Affective Disorders: Depression and Mania, 462
The Case of P.S., the Weeping Widow, 462
Major Categories of Affective Disorders, 463
Causal Factors in Affective Disorders, 463
Discovery of Antidepressant Drugs, 463
Brain Pathology and Affective Disorders, 465
Theories of Depression, 465
Antidepressant Effect of Sleep Deprivation and Exercise, 466
18.3. Anxiety Disorders, 466
The Case of M.R., the Woman Who Was Afraid to Go Out, 467
Five Classes of Anxiety Disorders, 467
Etiology of Anxiety Disorders, 467
Pharmacological Treatment of Anxiety Disorders, 467
Animal Models of Anxiety, 468
Neural Bases of Anxiety Disorders, 468
18.4. Tourette Syndrome, 469
The Case of R.G.—Barking Mad, 469
What Is Tourette Syndrome?, 469
Study of the Neuropathology of Tourette Syndrome, 470
Cerebral Correlates of Tourette Syndrome, 470
Treatment of Tourette Syndrome, 470
The Case of P.H., the Neuroscientist with Tourette Syndrome, 470
18.5. Clinical Trials: Development of New Psychotherapeutic Drugs, 471
Clinical Trials: The Three Phases, 471
Controversial Aspects of Clinical Trials, 472
Effectiveness of Clinical Trials, 473
Conclusion, 473
The Case of S.B., the Biopsychology Student Who Took Control, 473
Themes Revisited, 474
Think about It, 475
Key Terms, 475
Epilogue, 476
Appendixes, 477
Appendix I. The Autonomic Nervous System, 477
Appendix II. Some Functions of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Neurons, 479
Appendix III. The Cranial Nerves, 480
Appendix IV. Functions of the Cranial Nerves, 481
Appendix V. Nuclei of the Thalamus, 482
Appendix VI. Nuclei of the Hypothalamus, 483
Glossary, 484
References, 506
Credits, 559
Name Index, 561
Subject Index, 568

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