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Copyright, iv
About the Author, v
List of Features, vii
A Personal Note to Students, xv
Preface for Instructors, xvi
Part I. Theory and Research in Child Development, 2
Chapter 1. History, Theory, and Research Strategies, 2
The Field of Child Development, 4
Domains of Development, 4
Periods of Development, 5
Basic Issues, 6
Continuous or Discontinuous Development?, 7
One Course of Development or Many?, 8
Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture?, 8
A Balanced Point of View, 9
Biology and Environment: Resilient Children, 10
Historical Foundations, 11
Medieval Times, 11
The Reformation, 11
Philosophies of the Enlightenment, 11
Scientific Beginnings, 12
Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories, 14
The Psychoanalytic Perspective, 14
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory, 16
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory, 18
Recent Theoretical Perspectives, 21
Information Processing, 21
Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology, 23
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, 24
Ecological Systems Theory, 25
New Directions: Development as a Dynamic System, 27
Comparing Child Development Theories, 29
Studying the Child, 29
Common Methods of Gathering Information, 31
General Research Designs, 35
Cultural Influences: Immigrant Youths: Amazing Adaptation, 36
Designs for Studying Development, 40
Ethics in Research on Children, 43
Social Issues: Education: Can Musical Experiences Enhance Intelligence?, 44
Summary, 47
Important Terms and Concepts, 49
Part II. Foundations of Development, 50
Chapter 2. Biological and Environmental Foundations, 50
Genetic Foundations, 52
The Genetic Code, 52
The Sex Cells, 53
Boy or Girl?, 54
Multiple Births, 55
Patterns of Genetic Inheritance, 56
Chromosomal Abnormalities, 60
Reproductive Choices, 63
Genetic Counseling, 63
Prenatal Diagnosis and Fetal Medicine, 63
The Alternative of Adoption, 65
Biology and Environment: The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Technologies, 66
Environmental Contexts for Development, 69
The Family, 69
Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning, 71
Social Issues: Education: Worldwide Education of Girls: Transforming Current and Future Generations, 72
Affluence, 73
Poverty, 74
Beyond the Family: Neighborhoods and Schools, 75
The Cultural Context, 77
Cultural Influences: The African-American Extended Family, 78
Social Issues: Health: Welfare Reform, Poverty, and Child Development, 81
Understanding the Relationship Between Heredity and Environment, 82
The Question, “How Much?”, 83
The Question, “How?”, 85
Summary, 89
Important Terms and Concepts, 91
Chapter 3. Prenatal Development, 92
Motivations for Parenthood, 93
Why Have Children?, 94
How Large a Family?, 95
Is There a Best Time During Adulthood to Have a Child?, 96
Prenatal Development, 97
Conception, 98
The Period of the Zygote, 99
The Period of the Embryo, 101
The Period of the Fetus, 102
Prenatal Environmental Influences, 104
Teratogens, 105
Biology and Environment: The Prenatal Environment and Health in Later Life, 106
Social Issues: Health: Can a Thalidomide-Like Tragedy Occur Again? The Teratogenic Effects of Accutane, 109
Other Maternal Factors, 115
The Importance of Prenatal Health Care, 119
Cultural Influences: Culturally Sensitive Prenatal Care Promotes Healthy Pregnancies, 121
Preparing for Parenthood, 122
Seeking Information, 122
The Baby Becomes a Reality, 123
Models of Effective Parenthood, 123
The Parental Relationship, 124
Summary, 125
Important Terms and Concepts, 127
Chapter 4. Birth and the Newborn Baby, 128
The Stages of Childbirth, 130
Stage 1: Dilation and Effacement of the Cervix, 131
Stage 2: Delivery of the Baby, 131
Stage 3: Birth of the Placenta, 131
The Baby’s Adaptation to Labor and Delivery, 131
The Newborn Baby’s Appearance, 132
Assessing the Newborn’s Physical Condition: The Apgar Scale, 132
Approaches to Childbirth, 133
Natural, or Prepared, Childbirth, 134
Home Delivery, 135
Medical Interventions, 136
Fetal Monitoring, 136
Labor and Delivery Medication, 136
Instrument Delivery, 137
Induced Labor, 137
Cesarean Delivery, 138
Birth Complications, 138
Oxygen Deprivation, 139
Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants, 140
Birth Complications, Parenting, and Resilience, 143
Social Issues: Health: A Cross-National Perspective on Health Care and Other Policies for Parents and Newborn Babies, 144
Precious Moments After Birth, 146
The Newborn Baby’s Capacities, 147
Reflexes, 147
States, 149
Social Issues: Health: The Mysterious Tragedy of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 151
Sensory Capacities, 153
Neonatal Behavioral Assessment, 156
The Transition to Parenthood, 157
Changes in the Family System, 158
Single-Mother Families, 158
Parent Interventions, 159
Biology and Environment: Parental Depression and Child Development, 160
Summary, 161
Important Terms and Concepts, 163
Part III. Infancy and Toddlerhood: The First Two Years, 164
Chapter 5. Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood, 164
Body Growth, 166
Changes in Body Size and Muscle–Fat Makeup, 166
Changes in Body Proportions, 167
Skeletal Growth, 167
Brain Development, 168
Development of Neurons, 168
Neurophysiological Methods, 170
Development of the Cerebral Cortex, 171
Sensitive Periods in Brain Development, 173
Biology and Environment: Brain Plasticity: Insights from Research on Brain-Damaged Children and Adults, 174
Changing States of Arousal, 176
Cultural Influences: Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements, 177
Influences on Early Physical Growth, 178
Heredity, 178
Nutrition, 178
Malnutrition, 180
Emotional Well-Being, 182
Learning Capacities, 183
Classical Conditioning, 183
Operant Conditioning, 184
Habituation, 185
Imitation, 186
Motor Development, 187
The Sequence of Motor Development, 187
Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems, 189
Dynamic Motor Systems in Action, 189
Cultural Variations in Motor Development, 190
Fine Motor Development: Reaching and Grasping, 190
Bowel and Bladder Control, 192
Perceptual Development, 193
Hearing, 193
Biology and Environment: “Tuning In” to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive Period for Culture-Specific Learning, 195
Vision, 195
Social Issues: Education: Development of Infants with Severe Visual Impairments, 198
Object Perception, 200
Intermodal Perception, 202
Understanding Perceptual Development, 202
Summary, 204
Important Terms and Concepts, 205
Chapter 6. Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood, 206
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory, 208
Piaget’s Ideas about Cognitive Change, 208
The Sensorimotor Stage, 209
Follow-Up Research on Infant Cognitive Development, 212
Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage, 216
Biology and Environment: Do Infants Have Built-In Numerical Knowledge?, 218
Information Processing, 220
Structure of the Information-Processing System, 220
Attention, 221
Memory, 222
Biology and Environment: Infantile Amnesia, 224
Categorization, 224
Evaluation of Information-Processing Findings, 226
The Social Context of Early Cognitive Development, 227
Individual Differences in Early Mental Development, 228
Infant Intelligence Tests, 228
Cultural Influences: Social Origins of Make-Believe Play, 229
Early Environment and Mental Development, 231
Early Intervention for At-Risk Infants and Toddlers, 233
Language Development, 236
Three Theories of Language Development, 236
Getting Ready to Talk, 240
First Words, 242
The Two-Word Utterance Phase, 242
Comprehension versus Production, 243
Individual and Cultural Differences, 244
Supporting Early Language Development, 245
Social Issues: Education: Parent-Child Interaction: Impact on Language and Cognitive Development of Deaf Children, 246
Summary, 247
Important Terms and Concepts, 249
Chapter 7. Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood, 250
Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality, 252
Basic Trust versus Mistrust, 252
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt, 252
Emotional Development, 253
Development of Basic Emotions, 254
Understanding and Responding to the Emotions of Others, 256
Emergence of Self-Conscious Emotions, 257
Beginnings of Emotional Self-Regulation, 258
Development of Temperament, 260
The Structure of Temperament, 260
Measuring Temperament, 262
Stability of Temperament, 262
Biology and Environment: Development of Shyness and Sociability, 263
Genetic Influences, 264
Environmental Influences, 265
Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness-of-Fit Model, 266
Development of Attachment, 268
Bowlby’s Ethological Theory, 269
Measuring the Security of Attachment, 270
Stability of Attachment, 272
Cultural Variations, 272
Factors That Affect Attachment Security, 273
Multiple Attachments, 276
Social Issues: Health: Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten Attachment Security and Later Adjustment?, 277
Cultural Influences: The Powerful Role of Paternal Warmth in Development, 279
From Attachment to Peer Sociability, 280
Attachment and Later Development, 281
Self-Understanding, 283
Self-Awareness, 283
Categorizing the Self, 285
Self-Control, 285
Summary, 287
Important Terms and Concepts, 289
Milestones of Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood, 290
Part IV. Early Childhood: Two to Six Years, 292
Chapter 8. Physical Development in Early Childhood, 292
Body Growth, 293
Skeletal Growth, 294
Asynchronies in Physical Growth, 296
Brain Development, 296
Handedness, 297
Other Advances in Brain Development, 298
Influences on Physical Growth and Health, 300
Biology and Environment: Low-Level Lead Exposure and Children’s Development, 300
Heredity and Hormones, 300
Emotional Well-Being, 302
Sleep Habits and Problems, 302
Nutrition, 304
Infectious Disease, 305
Cultural Influences: Child Health Care in the United States and Other Western Nations, 307
Childhood Injuries, 308
Social Issues: Health: Otitis Media and Development, 309
Motor Development, 312
Gross Motor Development, 312
Fine Motor Development, 313
Individual Differences in Motor Skills, 316
Enhancing Early Childhood Motor Development, 317
Summary, 318
Important Terms and Concepts, 319
Chapter 9. Cognitive Development in Early Childhood, 320
Piaget’s Theory: The Preoperational Stage, 322
Advances in Mental Representation, 322
Make-Believe Play, 322
Symbol–Real World Relations, 323
Limitations of Preoperational Thought, 325
Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought, 326
Social Issues: Education: Young Children’s Understanding of Death, 328
Evaluation of the Preoperational Stage, 331
Piaget and Early Childhood Education, 332
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, 333
Children’s Private Speech, 333
Social Origins of Early Childhood Cognition, 334
Vygotsky and Early Childhood Education, 336
Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory, 336
Cultural Influences: Children in Village and Tribal Cultures Observe and Participate in Adult Work, 337
Information Processing, 338
Attention, 338
Memory, 339
Problem Solving, 341
The Young Child’s Theory of Mind, 342
Early Literacy and Mathematical Development, 344
Biology and Environment: “Mindblindness” and Autism, 345
Individual Differences in Mental Development, 349
Early Childhood Intelligence Tests, 349
Home Environment and Mental Development, 349
Preschool, Kindergarten, and Child Care, 350
Educational Media, 353
Language Development, 355
Vocabulary, 356
Grammar, 358
Conversation, 359
Supporting Language Learning in Early Childhood, 360
Summary, 361
Important Terms and Concepts, 363
Chapter 10. Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood, 364
Erikson’s Theory: Initiative versus Guilt, 366
Self-Understanding, 366
Foundations of Self-Concept, 367
Cultural Influences: Cultural Variations in Personal Storytelling: Implications for Early Self-Concept, 368
Emergence of Self-Esteem, 368
Emotional Development, 369
Understanding Emotion, 369
Emotional Self-Regulation, 371
Self-Conscious Emotions, 372
Empathy and Sympathy, 373
Peer Relations, 374
Advances in Peer Sociability, 374
First Friendships, 376
Social Problem Solving, 377
Parental Influences on Early Peer Relations, 378
Foundations of Morality, 380
The Psychoanalytic Perspective, 380
Social Learning Theory, 382
Cultural Influences: Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of Physical Punishment, 384
The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective, 385
The Other Side of Morality: Development of Aggression, 386
Gender Typing, 391
Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs and Behaviors, 391
Biological Influences on Gender Typing, 392
Environmental Influences on Gender Typing, 392
Biology and Environment: David: A Boy Who Was Reared as a Girl, 393
Gender Identity, 395
Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Young Children, 397
Child Rearing and Emotional and Social Development, 398
Styles of Child Rearing, 398
What Makes Authoritative Child Rearing Effective?, 400
Cultural Variations, 401
Child Maltreatment, 401
Summary, 406
Important Terms and Concepts, 407
Milestones of Development in Early Childhood, 408
Part V. Middle Childhood: Six to Eleven Years, 410
Chapter 11. Physical Development in Middle Childhood, 410
Body Growth, 412
Worldwide Variations in Body Size, 413
Secular Trends in Physical Growth, 413
Skeletal Growth, 413
Brain Development, 414
Common Health Problems, 415
Vision and Hearing, 415
Malnutrition, 416
Obesity, 416
Social Issues: Health: The Obesity Epidemic: How Americans Became the Heaviest People in the World, 420
Bedwetting, 422
Illnesses, 422
Unintentional Injuries, 423
Health Education, 424
Social Issues: Education: Children’s Understanding of Health and Illness, 425
Motor Development and Play, 427
Gross Motor Development, 427
Fine Motor Development, 428
Individual Differences in Motor Skills, 428
Child-Organized Games, 430
Adult-Organized Youth Sports, 430
Shadows of Our Evolutionary Past, 431
Physical Education, 432
Social Issues: Education: School Recess—A Time to Play, A Time to Learn, 433
Summary, 434
Important Terms and Concepts, 435
Chapter 12. Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood, 436
Piaget’s Theory: The Concrete Operational Stage, 437
Achievements of the Concrete Operational Stage, 438
Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought, 439
Follow-Up Research on Concrete Operational Thought, 440
Evaluation of the Concrete Operational Stage, 442
Information Processing, 442
Attention, 443
Biology and Environment: Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, 444
Memory Strategies, 445
The Knowledge Base and Memory Performance, 446
Culture, Schooling, and Memory Strategies, 446
The School-Age Child’s Theory of Mind, 447
Cognitive Self-Regulation, 448
Applications of Information Processing to Academic Learning, 449
Individual Differences in Mental Development, 452
Defining and Measuring Intelligence, 452
Recent Efforts to Define Intelligence, 454
Explaining Individual and Group Differences in IQ, 456
Social Issues: Education: Emotional Intelligence, 457
Reducing Cultural Bias in Testing, 460
Language Development, 462
Vocabulary, 462
Grammar, 462
Pragmatics, 463
Learning Two Languages at a Time, 464
Children’s Learning in School, 466
Class Size, 466
Educational Philosophies, 467
Social Issues: Education: School Readiness and Grade Retention, 468
Teacher-Student Interaction, 469
Grouping Practices, 470
Computers and Academic Learning, 471
Teaching Children with Special Needs, 472
How Well Educated Are North American Children?, 474
Summary, 477
Chapter 13. Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood, 480
Erikson’s Theory: Industry versus Inferiority, 481
Self-Understanding, 482
Self-Concept, 482
Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Influences on Self-Concept, 483
Self-Esteem, 484
Influences on Self-Esteem, 485
Emotional Development, 489
Self-Conscious Emotions, 489
Emotional Understanding, 490
Emotional Self-Regulation, 490
Understanding Others: Perspective Taking, 491
Moral Development, 492
Learning about Justice Through Sharing, 492
Moral and Social-Conventional Understanding, 493
Understanding Individual Rights, 494
Culture and Moral Understanding, 494
Understanding Diversity and Inequality, 494
Cultural Influences: Children’s Understanding of God, 495
Peer Relations, 497
Peer Groups, 497
Friendships, 499
Peer Acceptance, 500
Biology and Environment: Bullies and Their Victims, 502
Gender Typing, 503
Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs, 503
Gender Identity and Behavior, 504
Peers, Gender Typing, and Culture, 505
Family Influences, 506
Parent–Child Relationships, 506
Siblings, 507
Only Children, 507
Gay and Lesbian Families, 508
Never-Married Single-Parent Families, 509
Divorce, 509
Blended Families, 512
Maternal Employment and Dual-Earner Families, 514
Some Common Problems of Development, 516
Fears and Anxieties, 516
Child Sexual Abuse, 517
Cultural Influences: The Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence on Children, 518
Fostering Resilience in Middle Childhood, 519
Social Issues: Health: Children’s Eyewitness Testimony, 520
Summary, 523
Important Terms and Concepts, 525
Milestones of Development in Middle Childhood, 526
Part VI. Adolescence: The Transition to Adulthood, 528
Chapter 14. Physical Development in Adolescence, 528
Conceptions of Adolescence, 530
The Biological Perspective, 530
The Social Perspective, 530
A Balanced Point of View, 530
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood, 531
Hormonal Changes, 531
Body Growth, 532
Motor Development and Physical Activity, 533
Sexual Maturation, 535
Individual Differences in Pubertal Growth, 536
The Secular Trend, 537
Brain Development, 537
Changing States of Arousal, 538
The Psychological Impact of Pubertal Events, 539
Reactions to Pubertal Changes, 539
Pubertal Change, Emotion, and Social Behavior, 540
Pubertal Timing, 541
Health Issues, 543
Nutritional Needs, 543
Serious Eating Disturbances, 544
Injuries, 546
Sexual Activity, 547
Social Issues: Education: Parents and Teenagers (Don’t) Talk about Sex, 548
Biology and Environment: Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Youths: Coming Out to Oneself and Others, 552
Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 552
Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood, 555
Social Issues: Health: Like Parent, Like Child: Intergenerational Continuity in Adolescent Parenthood, 557
Substance Use and Abuse, 559
Summary, 562
Important Terms and Concepts, 563
Chapter 15. Cognitive Development in Adolescence, 564
Piaget’s Theory: The Formal Operational Stage, 566
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning, 566
Propositional Thought, 567
Follow-Up Research on Formal Operational Thought, 567
An Information-Processing View of Adolescent Cognitive Development, 569
Scientific Reasoning: Coordinating Theory with Evidence, 569
How Scientific Reasoning Develops, 570
Consequences of Adolescent Cognitive Changes, 571
Self-Consciousness and Self-Focusing, 571
Idealism and Criticism, 573
Planning and Decision Making, 573
Sex Differences in Mental Abilities, 574
Verbal Abilities, 574
Mathematical Abilities, 575
Biology and Environment: Sex Differences in Spatial Abilities, 576
Language Development, 577
Vocabulary and Grammar, 577
Pragmatics, 578
Learning in School, 578
School Transitions, 579
Academic Achievement, 580
Social Issues: Education: High-Stakes Testing, 584
Dropping Out, 585
Social Issues: Education: Extracurricular Activities: Contexts for Positive Youth Development, 588
Vocational Development, 589
Selecting a Vocation, 589
Factors Influencing Vocational Choice, 589
Vocational Preparation of Non-College-Bound Adolescents, 591
Summary, 593
Important Terms and Concepts, 595
Chapter 16. Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence, 596
Erikson’s Theory: Identity versus Role Confusion, 598
Self-Understanding, 598
Changes in Self-Concept, 599
Changes in Self-Esteem, 600
Influences on Self-Esteem, 600
Paths to Identity, 601
Identity Status and Psychological Well-Being, 602
Influences on Identity Development, 603
Cultural Influences: Identity Development among Ethnic Minority Adolescents, 605
Moral Development, 606
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development, 606
Are There Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning?, 609
Coordinating Moral, Social-Conventional, and Personal Concerns, 610
Influences on Moral Reasoning, 611
Moral Reasoning and Behavior, 613
Religious Involvement and Moral Development, 613
Social Issues: Education: Development of Civic Responsibility, 614
Gender Typing, 615
The Family, 616
Parent–Child Relationships, 616
Family Circumstances, 618
Siblings, 619
Peer Relations, 619
Friendships, 620
Cliques and Crowds, 623
Dating, 624
Peer Pressure and Conformity, 625
Problems of Development, 626
Depression, 626
Suicide, 628
Delinquency, 631
Biology and Environment: Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency, 632
At the Threshold, 634
Summary, 635
Important Terms and Concepts, 637
Milestones of Development in Adolescence, 638
Chapter 17. Emerging Adulthood, 640
A Period of Unprecedented Exploration, 642
Cultural Change and Emerging Adulthood, 643
Development in Emerging Adulthood, 645
Cognitive Changes, 645
Emotional and Social Changes, 646
Risk and Resilience in Emerging Adulthood, 652
Summary, 654
Important Terms and Concepts, 655
Glossary, G-1
References, R-1
Name Index, NI-1
Subject Index, SI-1

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