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Copyright, vi
Preface, xvii
Chapter One. Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment, 1
Science, 2
Science Is a Way of Thinking, 2
Asking Questions, 3
Historical Lesson 1.1: The Three Princes of Serendip, 4
Historical Lesson 1.2: Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, 5
Science and Art, 6
Historical Lesson 1.3: Leonardo da Vinci, 6
Acquiring Knowledge, 7
Tenacity, 7
Intuition, 8
Authority, 8
Rationalism, 9
Empiricism, 9
Science, 10
Emergence of Science, 11
Early Civilization, 11
Greek Science, 12
Medieval Science, 13
The Scientific Revolution, 14
Psychology, 15
The History of Psychology, 15
Structuralism, 16
Functionalism, 16
Psychodynamics, 16
Gestalt Psychology, 16
Behaviorism, 16
Humanistic Psychology, 17
Cognitive Psychology, 17
Women and Minorities in Psychology, 17
Modern Psychology, 18
The Science of Psychology, 19
The Cost of Neglect 1.1: Science and Pseudoscience, 21
Ethical Principles, 22
Using the Resources of This Text, 22
Exploring the Student Resource Website, 23
Using SPSS for Windows, 24
Summary, 24
Putting It into Practice, 25
Exercises, 25
Chapter Two. Research Is a Process of Inquiry, 26
The Scientific Process, 27
Basic Assumptions of Science, 27
Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs, 27
Inductive and Deductive Thinking, 30
Models and Theories in Science, 32
Historical Lesson 2.1: The Wright Brothers as Scientists, 33
A Model of the Research Process, 36
Phases of Research, 37
Idea-Generating Phase, 37
Problem-Definition Phase, 38
Procedures-Design Phase, 38
Observation Phase, 38
Data-Analysis Phase, 38
Interpretation Phase, 39
Communication Phase, 39
Levels of Constraint, 41
Naturalistic Observation, 44
Case-Study Research, 44
Correlational Research, 45
Differential Research, 45
Experimental Research, 45
Moving from One Constraint Level to Another, 46
Ethical Principles, 48
Summary, 49
Putting It into Practice, 49
Exercises, 50
Chapter Three. The Starting Point: Asking Questions, 51
Asking and Refining Questions, 52
Pursuing Your Personal Interests, 52
Following Up on the Work of Others, 52
Applied and Basic Research, 53
Refining Questions for Research, 54
Types of Variables in Research, 56
Classifying Variables Based on Their Nature, 56
Behavioral Variables, 56
Stimulus Variables, 56
Organismic Variables, 57
Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in Research, 57
Independent and Dependent Variables, 57
Extraneous Variables, 58
Variables and Constants, 58
Validity and the Control of Extraneous Variables, 59
Ethical Principles, 60
Ethical Principles for Human Research, 60
Institutional Review Boards, 62
Ethical Checks, 62
Ethics and Diversity Issues in Research, 63
Ethical Principles for Animal Research, 63
Summary, 65
Putting It into Practice, 66
Exercises, 66
Chapter Four. Data and the Nature of Measurement, 68
Measurement, 69
The Cost of Neglect 4.1: Missing Mars, 71
Scales of Measurement, 71
Nominal Scales, 72
Ordinal Scales, 72
Interval Scales, 72
Ratio Scales, 73
Measuring and Manipulating Variables, 74
Measurement Error, 74
Operational Definitions, 75
Evaluating Measures, 78
Reliability, 78
Interrater Reliability, 78
Test-Retest Reliability, 79
Internal Consistency Reliability, 79
Effective Range, 79
Validity, 81
The Need for Objective Measurement, 82
Ethical Principles, 83
Summary, 83
Putting It into Practice, 84
Exercises, 84
Chapter Five. Statistical Analysis of Data, 86
Individual Differences, 87
Organizing Data, 88
Frequency Distributions, 89
Nominal and Ordinal Data, 89
Score Data, 90
Graphical Representation of Data, 91
Descriptive Statistics, 93
Measures of Central Tendency, 94
The Cost of Neglect 5.1: Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics, 95
Measures of Variability, 96
Understanding the Concept 5.1: Degrees of Freedom, 99
Measures of Relationship, 99
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation, 99
Other Correlations, 101
Regression, 102
Reliability Indices, 102
Standard Scores, 102
Statistical Inference, 103
Populations and Samples, 103
The Null Hypothesis, 104
Statistical Decisions and Alpha Levels, 104
Type I and Type II Errors, 105
Inferential Statistics, 106
Testing for Mean Differences, 106
The t-Test, 106
Analysis of Variance, 106
The Power of a Statistical Test, 106
Effect Size, 107
Ethical Principles, 107
Summary, 108
Putting It into Practice, 108
Exercises, 108
Chapter Six. Field Research: Naturalistic and Case Study Research, 110
The Challenge of Low-Constraint Research, 111
Examples of Naturalistic Observation, 111
Biology, 111
Ethology, 112
Historical Lesson 6.1: Naturalistic Research and Evolution, 112
Sociology, 113
Psychology, 113
Examples of Case-Study Research, 114
Classic Case-Study Research, 114
Contemporary Case Studies, 114
The Value of Low-Constraint Methods, 115
Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research, 115
Understanding the Concept 6.1: The Therapist as Scientist, 116
Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research, 117
Using Low-Constraint Methods, 118
Problem Statements and Research Hypotheses, 119
Making Observations, 119
How to Observe, 120
Unobtrusive Measures, 120
Archival Measures, 121
Sampling of Participants, 122
Sampling of Situations, 122
Sampling of Behaviors, 123
Evaluating and Interpreting Data, 123
Limitations of Low-Constraint Methods, 124
Poor Representativeness, 124
Poor Replicability, 124
Causal Inference and Low-Constraint Research, 125
Limitations of the Observer, 126
Going Beyond the Data, 126
Ethical Principles, 127
Summary, 128
Putting It into Practice, 129
Exercises, 129
Chapter Seven. Correlational and Differential Methods of Research, 130
Correlational Research Methods, 131
Differential Research Methods, 132
Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research, 132
Artifacts and Confounding, 133
Understanding Correlational and Differential Methods, 134
Comparing These Methods, 134
When to Use These Methods, 135
Conducting Correlational Research, 136
Problem Statements, 136
Secondary Analyses, 136
Measuring the Variables, 137
Sampling, 138
Analyzing the Data, 138
Interpreting the Correlation, 139
Conducting Differential Research, 140
Problem Statements, 140
Measuring the Variables, 141
Selecting Appropriate Control Groups, 141
Sampling, 143
Analyzing the Data, 145
Interpreting the Data, 145
Limitations of Correlational and Differential Research, 146
Problems in Determining Causation, 146
Confounding Variables, 148
Ethical Principles, 149
Summary, 149
Putting It into Practice, 150
Exercises, 150
Chapter Eight. Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity, 151
Hypothesis Testing, 152
Starting Research with an Initial Idea, 153
Statement of the Problem, 153
Operational Definitions, 155
Research Hypothesis, 155
The Contribution of Theory to the Research Hypothesis, 156
Testing the Research Hypothesis, 157
Null Hypothesis, 158
Confounding Variable Hypothesis, 159
Causal Hypothesis, 160
Validity and Threats to Validity, 162
Statistical Validity, 162
Construct Validity, 163
External Validity, 163
Internal Validity, 164
Major Confounding Variables, 164
Maturation, 165
History, 165
Testing, 166
Instrumentation, 166
Regression to the Mean, 166
Selection, 167
Attrition, 167
Diffusion of Treatment, 167
Sequence Effects, 168
Examples of Confounding, 168
Subject and Experimenter Effects, 169
Subject Effects, 170
Experimenter Effects, 170
Ethical Principles, 171
Summary, 172
Putting It into Practice, 172
Exercises, 173
Chapter Nine. Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity, 174
General Control Procedures, 175
Preparation of the Setting, 175
Response Measurement, 175
Replication, 176
Control over Subject and Experimenter Effects, 177
Single- and Double-Blind Procedures, 177
Automation, 178
Using Objective Measures, 178
Multiple Observers, 179
Using Deception, 179
Understanding the Concept 9.1: Reliable Reliability, 180
Control through Participant Selection and Assignment, 182
Participant Selection, 183
Random Sampling, 184
Stratified Random Sampling, 185
Ad Hoc Samples, 185
Participant Assignment, 186
Free Random Assignment, 186
Randomizing within Blocks, 187
Matched Random Assignment, 187
Other Matching Procedures, 188
Advantages of Random Selection and Assignment, 190
Control Through Experimental Design, 190
Ethical Principles, 193
Summary, 194
Putting It into Practice, 195
Exercises, 195
Chapter Ten. Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs, 196
Variance, 197
Sources of Variance, 197
Systematic Between-Groups Variance, 197
Nonsystematic Within-Groups Variance, 198
Controlling Variance in Research, 200
Maximizing Experimental Variance, 200
Controlling Extraneous Variance, 202
Minimizing Error Variance, 202
Nonexperimental Approaches, 204
Ex Post Facto Studies, 204
Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies, 205
Single-Group, Pretest-Posttest Studies, 206
Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control-Group Studies, 207
Experimental Designs, 208
Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control-Group Design, 209
Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control-Group Design, 210
Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design, 211
Pretest-Manipulation Interaction: A Potential Problem, 211
Analyses of Variance, 213
Understanding the Concept 10.1: Statistical Power, 216
Specific Means Comparisons in ANOVA, 216
Graphing the Data, 217
Ethical Principles, 218
Summary, 219
Putting It into Practice, 220
Exercises, 220
Chapter Eleven. Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs, 222
Within-Subjects Designs, 223
Using Within-Subjects Designs, 223
Sequence Effects, 223
Controlling Sequence Effects, 224
Analyzing Within-Subjects Designs, 227
Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Subjects Designs, 228
Matched-Subjects Designs, 229
Using Matched-Subjects Designs, 230
Why Use Matched-Subjects Designs, 230
The Process of Matching, 231
Deciding on the Matching Variables, 231
Analyzing Matched-Subjects Designs, 232
Strengths and Weaknesses of Matched-Subjects Designs, 233
Single-Subject Experimental Designs, 234
Historical Lesson 11.1: Neuropsychological Cases, 234
ABA Reversal Design, 237
Multiple-Baseline Design, 239
Single-Subject, Randomized, Time-Series Design, 241
Replication in Single-Subject Designs, 243
Ethical Principles, 244
Putting It into Practice, 245
Summary, 245
Exercises, 246
Chapter Twelve. Factorial Designs, 247
Factorial Designs, 248
Main Effects and Interactions, 249
Possible Outcomes of Factorial Designs, 252
An Example: Children’s Dark-Fears Study, 255
Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs, 258
Variations of Basic Factorial Design, 260
Within-Subjects or Repeated-Measures Factorial, 260
Mixed Designs, 261
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Factors, 261
Manipulated and Nonmanipulated Factors, 261
Mixed in Both Ways, 262
ANOVA: A Postscript, 263
Analysis of Covariance, 264
Multivariate Analysis of Variance, 265
Ethical Principles, 266
Putting It into Practice, 267
Summary, 267
Exercises, 268
Chapter Thirteen. A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation, and Survey Research, 269
Conducting Field Research, 270
Reasons for Doing Field Research, 270
Testing External Validity, 270
Studying Effects in the Field, 271
Improving Generalization, 271
Difficulties in Field Research, 272
Flexibility in Research, 273
Quasi-Experimental Designs, 274
Nonequivalent Control-Group Designs, 275
Interrupted Time-Series Designs, 277
Program Evaluation Research, 283
Historical Lesson 13.1: From Head Start to Heads Up, 283
Practical Problems in Program Evaluation Research, 284
Issues of Control, 285
Selecting Appropriate Dependent Measures, 285
Minimizing Bias in Dependent Measures, 285
Control through Research Design in Program Evaluation, 285
Typical Program Evaluation Designs, 285
Randomized Control-Group Design, 286
Nonequivalent Control-Group Design, 286
Single-Group, Time-Series Design, 286
Pretest-Posttest Design, 286
Program Evaluation Research: An Example, 286
Surveys, 288
Types of Surveys, 288
Status Surveys, 288
Survey Research, 288
Steps in Survey Research, 288
Types of Survey Instruments, 289
Developing the Survey Instrument, 290
Sampling Participants, 291
Sampling Considerations, 291
The Cost of Neglect 13.1: Political Polling and Sampling, 292
Sampling Procedures, 293
Sample Size and Confidence Intervals, 293
Survey Research Design, 294
Cross-Sectional Design, 294
Longitudinal Design, 294
Ethical Principles, 294
Summary, 295
Putting It into Practice, 296
Exercises, 296
A Final Note to Students, 298
Appendix A. Using the Student Resource Website, 300
Resources Available, 300
What to Do If You Have Problems, 302
Getting Help, 303
Summary, 304
Appendix B. Writing a Research Report in APA Publication Style, 305
Structure of a Research Article, 306
Writing the Research Report, 306
Using Levels of Headings to Organize, 306
Sections of a Research Report, 307
Title Page, 307
Abstract, 307
Introduction, 307
Method, 308
Results, 308
Discussion, 310
References, 310
Writing Style, 311
Summary, 311
Appendix C. Conducting Library Research, 312
Using the Library, 312
Library Resources, 312
The Reference Librarian, 313
How Research Materials Are Organized, 313
Primary Sources, 313
Journal Articles, 313
Dissertations, 313
Secondary Sources, 313
Review Articles, 314
Books and Chapters in Books, 314
Annual Reviews, 314
Finding the Relevant Research, 314
Abstracting Services, 314
Psychological Abstracts, 314
ERIC, 314
Subject or Keyword Services, 314
Library Catalogs, 314
Books in Print, 315
Index Medicus, 315
Readers’ Guide to Periodic Literature, 315
Literature Citation Indexes, 315
Search Strategies, 316
Searching by Topic, 316
Identifying Keywords, 316
Computer Searches, 316
Searching Backward, 317
Searching Forward, 317
Summary, 318
Appendix D. Selecting Statistical Procedures, 319
Selecting Appropriate Statistical Procedures, 319
An Initial Example, 320
A Decision-Tree Model, 321
Decision-Tree Flowchart, 321
Describe the Study, 321
Identify the Study’s Major Characteristics, 323
Select Appropriate Statistics, 323
Secondary Analyses, 325
Post Hoc Analyses, 325
Analyses to Help to Interpret Results, 325
Data Snooping, 325
Caveats and Disclaimers, 325
Understanding the Concept D.1: The Robust Nature of Parametric Statistics, 326
Summary, 326
Exercises, 327
Appendix E. Research Design Checklist, 329
The Research Design Checklist, 329
Initial Problem Definition, 332
Clarity of the Research Hypotheses, 332
Statistical Analysis Procedures, 332
Theoretical Basis and Operational Definitions, 332
Adequacy of the Independent Variable Manipulation, 333
Adequacy of Dependent Measures, 333
Are All Controls in Place?, 333
Participants, 333
Participant Selection, 333
Sample Size, 334
Participant Assignment, 334
Participant Availability, 334
Research Ethics Considerations, 334
Preparation of the Setting, 334
Space and Equipment, 334
Personnel, 335
Adequacy of Participant Preparation, Instruction, and Procedures, 335
Summary, 335
Appendix F. Random Numbers, 336
Appendix G. Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions, 341
Appendix H. Meta-Analysis, 350
Logic of Meta-Analysis, 350
Literature Reviews, 351
Alpha Levels and Knowledge, 351
Beta Levels and Knowledge, 352
Meta-Analysis and the Problem of Type II Errors, 352
Summary, 353
Glossary, 354
References, 371
Name Index, 384
Subject Index, 389

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