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Copyright, iv
Maps and Illustrations, xv
Preface, xvii
Part One. Pre-Roman Italy and the Rise of Rome to 264 B.C., 1
I. Roman History: Its Geographic and Human Foundations, 1
Introduction to Roman History, 1
Geography, 1
The Site of Rome, 2
The Peoples and Cultures of Pre-Roman Italy, 4
The Peoples of Italy ca. 750 to 400 B.C., 7
II. Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans in Pre-Roman Italy, 11
The Phoenicians, 11
Tyre and Its Colonies, 13
Greek Colonization, 14
Decline of the Greek Cities in Italy and Sicily, 15
The Etruscans, 15
The Land of the Etruscans, 17
Sources for Etruscan History, 18
Etruscan Economic Life, 18
Etruscan Cities and Their Sociopolitical Organization, 19
Women and the Etruscan Family, 19
Etruscan Culture and Religion, 20
Etruscan Art and Architecture, 22
The Role of the Etruscans in Roman History, 24
The Fate of the Etruscans, 26
III. Early Rome to 500 B.C., 27
The Ancient Literary Tradition and Its Sources, 27
Reconstructing Early Roman History, 29
The Early Roman State, 34
IV. Early Roman Society, Religion, and Values, 39
The Principle of Hierarchy, 39
The Family, 39
Patrons and Clients, 44
Slaves and Freedmen, 44
Roman Names and the Gens, 44
Patrician and Nonpatrician Gentes, 45
Classes in Roman Society, 46
The Openness of Early Roman Society to Outsiders, 47
Early Roman Religion, 47
The State and Religion, 52
The Values of Early Roman Society, 52
V. The Evolution of the Roman Republican Constitution, 509 to 287 B.C., 55
Sources of Information for Early Republican History, 55
From Kingship to Republic, 56
The Early Form of the Republic, 58
The Priesthoods and Priestly Colleges, 60
Social and Political Conflicts, 509 to 287 B.C., 61
Creation of Separate Plebeian Identity and Institutions, 62
The Decemvirs and the Laws of the Twelve Tables, 64
Post-Decemviral Developments, 65
A New Period of Reform, 67
The Creation of a New Nobility, 68
Further Changes in Public Offices, 68
The Oligarchic Realities of the Roman Republican Constitution after 287 B.C., 71
VI. The Roman Conquest of Italy and Its Impact, 509 to 264 B.C., 74
Conflicts with Immediate Neighbors, 74
The Gallic Sack of Rome, 76
Up from the Ashes, 76
Initial Conquests in Central Italy, 77
The Roman System of Alliances and Citizen Communities, 78
The Final Conquest of Central Italy, 79
The Pyrrhic Wars and the Conquest of Southern Italy, 80
The Economic, Social, and Cultural Impact of Roman Expansion in Italy by 264 B.C., 82
How to Explain Rome’s Conquests, 86
Part Two. The High Point of the Roman Republic, 264 to 133 B.C., 88
VII. The First Punic War, Northern Italy, and Illyrian Pirates, 264 to 219 B.C., 88
Sources for Roman History from 264 to 133 B.C., 88
A New Chapter in Rome’s Expansion, 90
Carthage, 90
Sicily and the Outbreak of the First Punic War, 264 B.C., 92
Initial Carthaginian Setbacks, 263 and 262 B.C., 94
Expansion of the War, 94
A Titanic Struggle, 260 to 241 B.C., 94
The Truceless War and Roman Trickery, 241 to 238 B.C., 97
Roman Conquests in Northern Italy, 97
The Pirates of Illyria, 229 and 228 B.C., 98
Renewed War with the Gauls, 225–220 B.C., 98
Pirates Again, 220 to 219 B.C., 99
Rome’s Rise Surveyed, 99
VIII. War with Hannibal: The Second Punic War, 218 to 201 B.C., 100
Carthaginian Recovery after 238 B.C., 100
The Ebro Treaty, 101
Hannibal and the Outbreak of the Second Punic War, 101
Causes of the Second Punic War, 102
Hannibal’s War Strategy, 103
Roman War Plans, 103
Hannibal’s March to the Alps, 103
Hannibal’s Early Victories, 218 and 217 B.C., 104
Fabius Maximus, Cunctator, 217 B.C., 105
The Battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., 105
Further Carthaginian Successes, 106
The Roman Recovery, 106
The First Macedonian War, 215 to 205 B.C., 106
The War in Spain, 218 to 211 B.C., 106
Scipio Africanus, 107
The Battle at the Metaurus and the Death of Hasdrubal, 207 B.C., 107
The End Approaches, 108
The Battle of Zama (Naraggara), 202 B.C., 109
Peace Terms, 109
Reasons for Roman Success, 109
The Fate of Hannibal, 109
IX. Roman Imperialism East and West, 200 to 133 B.C., 110
Provincial Governors, 110
Roman Imperialism in the East, 111
Antiochus III (the Great) of Syria and Philip V of Macedon, 112
The Second Macedonian War, 200 to 196 B.C., 113
The Aggressions of Antiochus III (the Great), 196 to 192 B.C., 115
The War With Antiochus III (the Great), 192 to 188 B.C., 116
The Third Macedonian War, 171 to 168/7 B.C., 117
Rome and the Hellenistic East after Pydna (168 B.C.), 118
Roman Imperialism in the West, 200 to 133 B.C., 120
Northern Italy, 120
Successes and Failures in Spain, 121
The Third Punic War, 149 to 146 B.C., 123
The Viriathic and Numantine Wars in Spain, 151 to 133 B.C., 125
X. The Transformation of Roman Life, 264 to 133 B.C., 127
The Impact of War and Overseas Expansion on Small Farmers, 127
Coinage and the Monetization of the Economy, 129
The Growth of Trade, Cities, Industry, and Commerce, 130
Social Change and Discontent, 131
Political Developments, 136
XI. The Great Cultural Synthesis, 264 to 133 B.C., 141
Architecture and Art, 141
Literature, 142
Specialization after Ennius, 144
Prose Literature, 145
Philosophy, 147
Law, 148
Religion, 149
Education, 150
Part Three. The World of the Late Republic, 133 to 30 B.C., 152
XII. The Gracchi and the Struggle over Reforms, 133 to 121 B.C., 152
Sources for the Period of the Gracchi, 133 to 121 B.C., 152
Mounting Problems, 152
The Tribuneship of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C., 153
Tiberius’ Motives, 155
The Land Commission and Its Impact, 157
Rome’s Allies and the Death of Scipio, 157
Gaius Gracchus, Tribune of the Plebs, 123 to 122 B.C., 158
The Reforms of Gaius Gracchus, 159
Livius Drusus, 161
The Fall and Death of Gaius Gracchus, 161
The Popularis Political Legacy of the Gracchi, 162
XIII. The Breakdown of the System and the Career of Marius, 121 to 88 B.C., 163
Sources for the Period from 121 to 88 B.C., 163
Populares and Optimates, 163
The Senatus Consultum Ultimum, 164
Post-Gracchan Land Legislation, 165
The Imperial Background to Domestic Affairs, 165
The Popularis Rise of Gaius Marius (157 to 86 B.C.), 167
The Slave Revolt in Sicily, 104 to 100 B.C., 169
Piracy in the Eastern Mediterranean, 169
The Political Fall of Marius, 169
A Decade of Optimate Domination, 171
The Explosive Reforms of M. Livius Drusus the Younger, 91 B.C., 171
The Italian, or Social, War, 90 to 88 B.C., 172
The Aftermath of the Social War, 173
XIV. Civil War and Sulla’s Reactionary Settlement, 88 to 78 B.C., 174
Sources for the Years 88 to 78 B.C., 174
Mithridates VI Eupator (134 to 63 B.C.), 174
The Rise of Sulla (138 to 78 B.C.), 175
Cinna’s Consulship, 87 B.C., 176
Marius and His Reign of Terror, 176
The Significance of Marius, 177
Cinna’s Time (Cinnanum Tempus), 177
Sulla and the East, 87 to 84 B.C., 177
Sulla’s Return to Italy, 83 to 82 B.C., 178
Sulla’s Reign of Terror, 82 B.C., 178
Sulla’s Dictatorship and Political Reforms, 179
The Failure of Sulla, 181
XV. Personal Ambitions: The Failure of Sulla’s Optimate Oligarchy, 78 to 60 B.C., 182
Sources for Roman History from 78 to 30 B.C., 182
The Rise of Pompey the Great (106 to 48 B.C.) 78 to 71 B.C., 183
The Great (Third) Mithridatic War (74/3 to 63 B.C.) and Lucullus’ Bid for Glory, 74 to 66 B.C., 185
Crassus Seeks Advantage in the Slave War against Spartacus in Italy, 73 to 71 B.C., 186
The Consulship of Pompey and Crassus, 70 B.C., 187
Cicero Gains Fame in the Trial of Verres, 70 B.C., 188
Tribunes Make Their Marks and Pompey Takes Control of the East, 67 to 62 B.C., 188
Rome in the Absence of Pompey, 192
After Pompey’s Return, 62 to 60 B.C., 196
XVI. Caesar Wins and Is Lost, 60 to 44 B.C., 198
Caesar Partners with Pompey and Crassus, 60 to 58 B.C., 199
Gaul and the Foundation of Caesar’s Might, 58 to 56 B.C., 201
Disorder at Rome and a Renewed Partnership, 58 to 56 B.C., 202
Caesar Overcomes Challenges in Gaul, 56 to 52 B.C., 203
Caesar’s Partners Strive to Keep up, 56 to 53 B.C., 204
Rivalry and Civil War between Caesar and Pompey, 53 to 48 B.C., 204
Caesar’s Dictatorships and Final Victory, 48 to 45 B.C., 207
Caesar’s Work of Reconstruction, 210
The Assassination of Julius Caesar, March 15, 44 B.C., 212
The Question of Monarchy, 213
The Significance of Caesar, 213
XVII. The Last Years of the Republic, 44 to 30 B.C., 215
Marcus Antonius Tries to Take Control, 44 to 43 B.C., 215
The Triumvirate of Octavian, Antonius, and Lepidus, 43 to 36 B.C., 219
Antonius and Cleopatra Rule the East, 37 to 32 B.C., 224
The Approach and Renewal of Civil War, 32 to 30 B.C., 225
The End of the Republic, 227
XVIII. Social, Economic, and Cultural Life in the Late Republic, ca. 133 to ca. 30 B.C., 229
Land, Veterans, and Rural Life, 229
Industry and Commerce, 230
The Concentration of Wealth, 232
Life for the Urban Poor, 233
Slaves and Freedmen, 234
Italians and Provincials, 235
Women in the Late Republic, 236
New Waves of Hellenization, 238
Education, 238
Law and the Legal System, 239
The Religious World of the Late Republic, 239
Greek Philosophy and the Roman Elite, 241
Art and Architecture, 242
Late Republican Literature from the Gracchi to Sulla, 242
The Novi Poetae, 244
Catullus (ca. 85 to ca. 54 B.C.), 244
Lucretius (ca. 94 to ca. 55 B.C.), 244
Cicero (106 to 43 B.C.), 245
Sallust (86 to ca. 34 B.C.), 245
Caesar (100 to 44 B.C.), 246
Scholarship and Patriotic Antiquarianism, 246
The Cultural Legacy of the Late Republic, 247
Part Four. The Early Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to A.D. 180, 248
XIX. The Principate Takes Shape, 29 B.C. to A.D. 14, 248
Sources for the Augustan Principate, 248
Hopes for Peace, 248
Problems to be Faced, 248
Octavian’s Advantages, 249
The Evolving Constitutional Arrangements of the Principate, 250
The Nature of the Principate, 254
The Creation of a Central Administration, 255
Social Reforms, 258
Religious Reforms, 259
Augustus’ Success, 260
XX. Imperial Stabilization under Augustus, 261
Military Reforms, 261
Protection of the Emperor, 263
Fiscal Reforms, 263
Provincial Reforms, 264
Conquests in the West, 265
Solidifying Control of the Balkans, Crete, and Cyrene, 268
Holding the East, 268
Road Building, 270
The Imperial Post (Cursus Publicus), 270
Colonization, 272
Urbanization of the Provinces, 272
Growth of the Imperial Cult, 272
The Problem of Succession, 272
The Death of Augustus, 276
XXI. The Impact of Augustus on Roman Imperial Life and Culture, 277
The Population and Economic Impact of Rome, 277
Agriculture, 278
Agricultural Wealth and Urbanization, 278
Cities of Italy and the Empire, 278
Nonagricultural Trade and Industry, 279
The Roman Imperial Coinage, 281
Architecture and Art, 282
Literature, 286
Vergil (70 to 19 B.C.), 286
Horace (65 to 8 B.C.), 287
The Latin Elegists, 288
Latin Prose Writers, 289
The Impact of Augustus on Latin Literature, 290
Greek Writers, 290
Scholarly and Technical Writings, 291
Law and Jurisprudence, 291
The Augustan Achievement, 291
XXII. The First Two Julio–Claudian Emperors: Tiberius and Gaius (Caligula), A.D. 14 to 41, 292
Sources for the Julio–Claudians, 292
The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (Chart), 293
Tiberius (A.D. 14 to 37), 294
Germanicus, 295
Sejanus, 296
The Law of Treason (Maiestas), 297
Tiberius and the Senate: The Increasing Power of the Princeps, 298
Tiberius the Administrator, 299
Tiberius’ Last Years and the Succession, 299
Gaius Caligula (A.D. 37 to 41), 300
A Popular Princeps at First, 301
Problems in the Palace, 301
Tensions with the Senate, 301
Caligula’s Military Operations, 302
Fiscal Problems, 302
Caligula’s Foreign and Provincial Policies, 302
Caligula’s Religious Policies, 302
Caligula’s Assassination, 303
XXIII. Claudius, Nero, and the End of the Julio–Claudians, A.D. 41 to 68, 304
Claudius (A.D. 41 to 54), 304
The Political Philosophy and Policies of Claudius, 305
Foreign Policy and Imperial Defense, 307
Colonization, Urbanization, and Romanization in the Provinces, 308
Claudius’ Wives, 308
Claudius’ Death and the Succession of Nero (A.D. 54 to 68), 309
The Darker Side of Nero’s Early Reign, 310
Nero Asserts Himself, 311
Growing Hostility toward Nero, 311
Plots against the Throne, 313
Prelude to a Fall, 313
The Jewish Revolt and the Fall of Nero, 313
XXIV. The Crisis of the Principate and Recovery under the Flavians, A.D. 69 to 96, 315
Sources, 315
Galba (68 to 69), 315
Otho (69), 316
Vitellius (69), 316
Vespasian (69 to 79), 316
The Restoration of Peace, 317
Reform of the Army, 318
Provincial Policy, 318
The Near East, 319
Vespasian’s Relations with the Senate, 319
The Expansion of Executive Power, 320
Fiscal Administration, 320
The Opposition to Vespasian, 321
Vespasian’s Death, 79, 321
Titus (79 to 81), 321
Domitian (81 to 96), 321
War and Rebellion, 82 to 93, 323
Fear, Purges, and the Murder of Domitian, 89 to 96, 323
XXV. The Five “Good” Emperors of the Second Century, A.D. 96 to 180, 325
Sources, 325
Nerva (96 to 98), 326
Trajan (98 to 117), 326
A Model Emperor, 327
Trajan’s Wars, 327
The Death of Trajan, 117, 329
The Effects of Trajan’s Wars, 329
Hadrian (117 to 138), 329
The Early Years of Hadrian’s Principate, 330
Hadrian’s Travels, 330
The Jewish Revolt, 331
New Directions under Hadrian, 331
The Last Years of Hadrian, 334
Antoninus Pius (138 to 161), 334
Maintaining the Status Quo, 335
The Legacy of Antoninus, 336
Marcus Aurelius (161 to 180), 336
Persecution of the Christians, 337
Marcus Aurelius as Emperor and Soldier, 337
The Question of Succession, 339
Problems for the Future, 340
XXVI. Imperial Culture and Society in the First Two Centuries A.D., 341
Post-Augustan Imperial Literature, 341
Poverty of Literature under Tiberius and Caligula, 342
The Blossoming of the Silver Age in Literature under Claudius and Nero, 343
Technical Writing and Scholarship, 344
Science and Medicine, 345
Philology and Literary Scholarship, 346
Lack of Great Literature under the Flavians, A.D. 69 to 96, 346
Resurgence of Literature under the Five “Good” Emperors, 347
Resurgence of Greek Literature, 348
The Second Sophistic, 349
Christian Writers, 350
Philosophy, 350
Religious Trends, 350
Judaism, 351
Mystery Cults, 351
Christianity, 352
Roman Architecture in the First Two Centuries A.D., 354
Architecture in the Provinces, 357
Sculpture, 358
Painting, 359
Mosaics, Coins, and Medallions, 359
Social Developments, 360
Economic Trends, 362
Inherent Economic and Fiscal Weakness of the Roman Empire, 363
Part Five. Crisis, Continuity, and Change in the Third and Fourth Centuries, A.D. 180 to 395, 365
XXVII. Conflicts and Crises under Commodus and the Severi, A.D. 180 to 235, 365
Sources for Roman History, A.D. 180 to 285, 366
Commodus (180 to 192), 366
Pertinax (January 1 to March 28, 193), 370
Didius Julianus (March 28 to June 1, 193), 370
The Accession of Septimius Severus (193 to 211), 370
New Sources of Imperial Authority and Legitimacy, 371
Systematic Reform, 372
Imperial Wars and Defense, 197 to 201/2, 374
Roman Interlude, 203 to 207, 375
The War in Britain, 208 to 211, 375
Caracalla (211 to 217), 375
Macrinus (217 to 218), 377
Impressive Syrian Queens, 377
Elagabalus (218 to 222), 378
Severus Alexander (222 to 235), 378
XXVIII. The Third-Century Anarchy, A.D. 235 to 285, 380
Reasons for the Crisis, 380
The Emperors of Troubled Times, 382
The Nightmare Begins, 235 to 253, 382
The Age of Gallienus, 253 to 268, 383
The Reforms of Gallienus, 385
An Assessment of Gallienus, 387
Initial Recovery under Illyrian Soldier Emperors, 268 to 275, 387
The Nightmare Resumes, 275 to 285, 388
XXIX. Changes in Roman Life and Culture During the Third Century, 390
Economic Life, 390
Social Trends, 392
Third-Century Cultural Life, 395
Religion, 395
Science and Philosophy, 398
Education and the World of Letters, 399
Art and Architecture, 403
Summary and Prospect, 405
XXX. Diocletian: Creating the Fourth-Century Empire, A.D. 285 to 305, 406
Sources for Roman History During the Fourth Century A.D., 406
The Rise of Diocletian, 408
The Tetrarchy: A New Form of Imperial Rule, 293 to 312, 408
Diocletian’s Other Reforms, 412
Persecution of the Christians, 415
The Abdication, 416
XXXI. Constantine the Great and Christianity, A.D. 306 to 337, 418
The Rise of Constantine, 306 to 312, 418
A Victory for Christianity, 421
Constantine and Licinius: The Empire Divided, 313 to 324, 422
The Donatist Schism, 422
The Arian Heresy, 423
The Defeat and Death of Licinius, 324, 423
The Council of Nicaea, 325, 424
Constantine’s Secular Policies, 424
The Founding of Constantinople, 324 to 330, 426
The Death of Constantine the Great, 337, 427
XXXII. From Constantine’s Dynasty to Theodosius the Great, A.D. 337 to 395, 430
Murder and Civil War, 430
The Empire under Constantius II, 431
Julian the Apostate Emperor (361 to 363), 432
Jovian (June 363 to February 364), 433
Valentinian I (364 to 375) and Valens (364 to 378), 433
Gratian (375 to 383) and Theodosius the Great (379 to 395), 434
The Death of Theodosius and the Division of the Empire, 395, 435
XXXIII. The Evolving World of Late Antiquity in the Fourth Century A.D., 437
Economic Conditions, 437
The Social Context, 439
Private Life, 446
XXXIV. Christianity and Classical Culture in the Fourth Century, 452
Christianity and the Expansion of Classical Culture, 452
The Educated World of Letters, 456
Christian Literature of the Fourth Century, 459
Fourth-Century Art and Architecture, 461
Part Six. The Transformation of the Roman World in Late Antiquity, A.D. 395 to 602, 471
XXXV. Germanic Takeover in the West and Imperial Survival in the East, A.D. 395 to 518, 471
Sources for Roman History from 395 to 518, 471
Western Weaknesses and Eastern Strengths, 473
Stilicho and Alaric, 395 to 410, 474
The Visigothic Migration and Settlement after Alaric, 475
The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi, 476
Galla Placidia, Valentinian III, and Aetius, 476
Attila the Hun, 443 to 454, 476
The Burgundians, 477
The Franks, 477
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, 477
The Vandals in Africa, 478
The End of Imperial Power in the West, 454 to 500, 478
Weak Men and Powerful Women: The Theodosian Dynasty in the East, 395 to 450, 480
Persians and Huns, 408 to 450, 481
Christian Controversies and Imperial Politics, 482
German and Isaurian Generals, 482
Pulcheria and Marcian (450 to 457), 482
Leo I (457 to 474), 483
Leo II (473 to 474) and Zeno (474 to 491), 483
Religious Controversies Continued, 483
Anastasius (491 to 518), 484
XXXVI. Justin, Justinian, and the Impossible Dream of Universal Empire, A.D. 518 to 602, 486
Sources for the Period of Justin and Justinian, 486
The Reign of Justin (518 to 527), 487
Justinian (527 to 565), 487
Theodora, 488
Religious Policies of Theodora and Justinian, 488
Legal Reforms, 489
Administrative Reforms, 489
John the Cappadocian, 489
The First Persian War, 527 to 532, 489
The Nika Rebellion of the Blue and Green Circus Factions, 532, 490
The Rebuilding of Constantinople, 491
Reconquest of the North African Provinces, 533 to 534, 492
Italy is Invaded, 536 to 540, 492
Troubles in North Africa, 494
The Second Persian War, 540 to 562, 495
Resumption of War in Italy, 541 to 543, 495
Troubles Everywhere, 495
Belisarius Returns to Face Totila in Italy, 544 to 549, 496
The Lazic War, 549 to 557, 496
Peace in the East, 497
Disaster in Italy, 549 to 551, 497
The Recovery of Italy, 552 to 562, 497
Wars on Other Fronts, 544 to 561, 497
Justinian’s Legacy and Successors, 565 to 602, 498
XXXVII. The Transformation of the Late Antique Roman World, A.D. 395 to 600, 501
The Economy, 501
Social and Demographic Changes, 502
Religion, 505
The New Cultural Spirit, 507
Art and Architecture, 512
XXXVIII. The Church and the Legacy of Rome, 516
Transmitting the Roman Classical Legacy, 516
The Imperial Church, 518
The Rise of Rome, 520
Bibliography, 521
Index, 537

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