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Why Do You Need This New Edition?, iii
Copyright, viii
Preface, xxv
Supplements, xxxv
Acknowledgments, xxxvii
Part One. Overview of Argument, 1
1. Argument: An Introduction, 2
What Do We Mean by Argument?, 2
Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel, 2
Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate, 3
Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit, 3
Louis W. Sullivan, M.D., “Let the Facts Decide, Not Fear: Ban AB 1108”, 6
The Defining Features of Argument, 10
Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims, 10
Argument Is Both a Process and a Product, 12
Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion, 13
Argument and the Problem of Truth, 15
A Successful Process of Argumentation: The Well-Functioning Committee, 18
Gordon Adams (Student), “Petition to Waive the University Mathematics Requirement”, 19
Conclusion, 23
2. Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring, 24
Finding Issues to Explore, 25
Do Some Initial Brainstorming, 25
Be Open to the Issues All around You, 25
Explore Ideas by Freewriting, 29
Explore Ideas by Idea Mapping, 29
Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game, 30
Placing Texts in a Rhetorical Context, 32
Genres of Argument, 32
Cultural Contexts: Who Writes Arguments and Why?, 32
Analyzing Rhetorical Context and Genre, 37
Reading to Believe an Argument’s Claims, 38
John Kavanaugh, “Amnesty?”, 39
Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe, 40
Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Belief in the Writer’s Views, 43
Reading to Doubt, 44
Thinking Dialectically, 45
Questions to Stimulate Dialectic Thinking, 46
Fred Reed, “Why Blame Mexico?”, 47
Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking, 48
Conclusion, 50
Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or a Formal Exploratory Essay, 50
Reading, 52
Michael Banks (Student), “Should the United States Grant Legal Status to Undocumented Immigrant Workers?”, 52
Part Two. Writing an Argument, 59
3. The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons, 60
The Classical Structure of Argument, 60
Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle, 62
Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument, 64
Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question, 64
How to Identify an Issue Question, 64
Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument, 66
Pseudo-Arguments: Fanatical Believers and Fanatical Skeptics, 66
Another Source of Pseudo-Arguments: Lack of Shared Assumptions, 66
Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons, 67
What Is a Reason?, 68
Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses, 69
Conclusion, 70
Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements, 71
4. The Logical Structure of Arguments, 73
An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an Argument?, 73
Formal Logic versus Real-World Logic, 73
The Role of Assumptions, 74
The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme, 74
Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System, 76
Using Toulmin’s Schema to Determine a Strategy of Support, 80
The Power of Audience-Based Reasons, 84
Difference between Writer-Based and Audience-Based Reasons, 84
Conclusion, 87
Writing Assignment: Plan of an Argument’s Details, 87
5. Using Evidence Effectively, 89
The Persuasive Use of Evidence, 89
Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence, 89
Use Sources That Your Reader Trusts, 91
Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence, 91
Kinds of Evidence, 91
Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence, 94
Examining Visual Arguments: Angle of Vision, 95
Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence, 98
Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence, 99
Gathering Evidence, 101
Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence, 101
Gathering Data from Interviews, 102
Gathering Data from Surveys or Questionnaires, 103
Conclusion, 103
Writing Assignment: A Microtheme or a Supporting-Reasons Argument, 104
Reading, 105
Carmen Tieu (Student), “Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls”, 106
6. Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos, 109
Ethos and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview, 109
How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility, 111
How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions, 112
Use Concrete Language, 113
Use Specific Examples and Illustrations, 113
Use Narratives, 114
Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations, 115
Using Images for Emotional Appeal, 115
Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments, 116
Examining Visual Arguments: Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos, 117
How Audience-Based Reasons Enhance Logos, Ethos, and Pathos, 119
Conclusion, 122
Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons, 123
7. Responding to Objections and Alternative Views, 124
One-Sided, Multisided, and Dialogic Arguments, 124
Determining Your Audience’s Resistance to Your Views, 125
Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument, 127
Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument, 128
Summarizing Opposing Views, 128
Refuting Opposing Views, 129
Strategies for Rebutting Evidence, 131
Conceding to Opposing Views, 132
Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy, 132
Marybeth Hamilton (Student), From “First Place: A Healing School for Homeless Children”, 133
Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Dialogic Argument, 135
Delayed-Thesis Argument, 135
Ellen Goodman, “Minneapolis Pornography Ordinance”, 136
Rogerian Argument, 138
Conclusion, 139
Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Dialogic Argument Aimed at Conciliation, 140
Reading, 140
David Langley (Student), “‘Half-Criminals’ or Urban Athletes? A Plea for Fair Treatment of Skateboarders” (A Classical Argument), 141
Rebekah Taylor (Student), “A Letter to Jim” (A Rogerian Argument), 143
Part Three. Analyzing Arguments, 145
8. Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically, 146
Thinking Rhetorically about a Text, 146
Questions for Rhetorical Analysis, 148
An Illustration of Rhetorical Analysis, 148
Kathryn Jean Lopez, “Egg Heads”, 151
A Rhetorical Analysis of “Egg Heads”, 154
Conclusion, 157
Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis, 158
Generating Ideas for Your Rhetorical Analysis, 158
Organizing Your Rhetorical Analysis, 160
Reading, 160
Ellen Goodman, “Womb for Rent—For a Price”, 160
Zachary Stumps (Student), “A Rhetorical Analysis of Ellen Goodman’s ‘Womb For Rent—For a Price’”, 162
9. Analyzing Visual Arguments, 165
Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument, 166
Use of Type, 166
Use of Space or Layout, 167
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and Spatial Elements, 168
Use of Color, 171
Use of Images and Graphics, 171
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using All the Design Components, 172
The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings, 174
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images, 177
The Genres of Visual Argument, 183
Posters and Fliers, 184
Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements, 184
Cartoons, 186
Web Pages, 187
Constructing Your Own Visual Argument, 189
Using Information Graphics in Arguments, 191
How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories, 191
Using a Graph to Tell a Story, 194
Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument, 196
Conclusion, 198
Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Poster Argument, or a Microtheme Using Quantitative Data, 198
Part Four. Arguments in Depth: Five Types of Claims, 199
10. An Introduction to the Types of Claims, 200
An Overview of the Types of Claims, 200
Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas: An Example, 202
Making the LASIK Argument to Parents, 203
Making the LASIK Argument to Insurance Companies, 204
Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments, 205
Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments, 205
An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument, 207
Aaron Friedman, “All That Noise for Nothing”, 208
11. Definitional Arguments, 210
An Overview of Arguments About Definition, 211
The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be Treated the Same Way, 212
Types of Definitional Arguments, 213
Examining Visual Arguments: A Definitional Claim, 215
The Criteria—Match Structure of Definitional Arguments, 216
Developing the Criteria-Match Structure for a Definitional Argument, 216
Toulmin Framework for a Definitional Argument, 217
Kinds of Definitions, 218
Aristotelian Definitions, 218
Operational Definitions, 220
Conducting the Criteria Part of a Definitional Argument, 221
Approach 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term, 221
Approach 2: Create Your Own Extended Definition, 222
Conducting the Match Part of a Definitional Argument, 224
Writing Assignment: A Definitional Argument, 225
Exploring Ideas, 225
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake, 226
Organizing a Definitional Argument, 227
Questioning and Critiquing a Definitional Argument, 227
Readings, 229
Jenefer Domingo (Student), “Protecting Our Homes Can Lead to Animal Cruelty”, 229
Kathy Sullivan (Student), “Oncore, Obscenity, and the Liquor Control Board”, 231
David Andriesen, “What Defines a Sport?”, 233
12. Causal Arguments, 237
An Overview of Causal Arguments, 238
Kinds of Causal Arguments, 239
Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument, 241
Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another, 243
First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly, 243
Examining Visual Arguments: A Causal Claim, 244
Second Method: Infer Causal Links Using Inductive Reasoning, 246
Glossary of Terms Encountered in Causal Arguments, 247
Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument, 249
Exploring Ideas, 249
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake, 251
Organizing a Causal Argument, 251
Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument, 251
Readings, 254
Julee Christianson (Student), “Why Lawrence Summers Was Wrong: Culture Rather Than Biology Explains the Underrepresentation of Women in Science and Mathematics”, 254
Olivia Judson, “Different but (Probably) Equal”, 258
Carlos Macias (Student), “‘The Credit Card Company Made Me Do It!’—The Credit Card Industry’s Role in Causing Student Debt”, 260
13. Resemblance Arguments, 264
An Overview of Resemblance Arguments, 265
Toulmin Framework for a Resemblance Argument, 265
Arguments by Analogy, 267
Using Undeveloped Analogies, 267
Using Extended Analogies, 268
Arguments by Precedent, 269
Examining Visual Arguments: A Resemblance Claim, 270
Writing Assignment: A Resemblance Argument, 271
Exploring Ideas, 271
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake, 272
Organizing a Resemblance Argument, 272
Questioning and Critiquing a Resemblance Argument, 272
Readings, 274
Megan Matthews (Student), “Whales Need Silence”, 274
Clay Bennett, “Just Emancipated” (editorial cartoon), 275
Beth Reis, “Toon Offensive”, 276
American Association of University Professors, “Football Coach Salaries”, 276
Susan Brownmiller, “From Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape”, 280
14. Evaluation and Ethical Arguments, 284
An Overview of Evaluation Arguments, 285
Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations, 285
Toulmin Framework for an Evaluation Argument, 286
Constructing a Categorical Evaluation Argument, 286
Developing Your Criteria, 286
Making Your Match Argument, 288
Examining Visual Arguments: An Evaluation Claim, 289
An Overview of Ethical Arguments, 291
Major Ethical Systems, 292
Consequences as the Base of Ethics, 292
Principles as the Base of Ethics, 293
Constructing an Ethical Argument, 293
Constructing a Principles-Based Argument, 293
Constructing a Consequences-Based Argument, 294
Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments, 295
Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Ethical Argument, 296
Exploring Ideas, 296
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake, 297
Organizing an Evaluation Argument, 297
Questioning and Critiquing a Categorical Argument, 297
Critiquing an Ethical Argument, 299
Readings, 301
Sam Isaacson (Student), “Would Legalization of Gay Marriage Be Good for the Gay Community?”, 301
Tiffany Anderson (student), “A Woman’s View of Hip-Hop”, 304
David Holcberg, “Human Organs for Sale?”, 308
15. Proposal Arguments, 310
An Overview of Proposal Arguments, 311
The Structure of Proposal Arguments, 312
Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument, 312
Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments, 312
Developing a Proposal Argument, 314
Convincing Your Readers That a Problem Exists, 314
Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal, 315
The Justification: Convincing Your Readers That Your Proposal Should Be Enacted, 316
Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements, 316
Using the Claim-Types Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument, 318
Using the “Stock Issues” Strategy to Develop a Proposal Argument, 320
Examining Visual Arguments: A Proposal Claim, 321
Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument, 323
Exploring Ideas, 324
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake, 325
Organizing a Proposal Argument, 325
Designing a One-Page Advocacy Advertisement, 325
Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument, 327
Readings, 328
Laurel Wilson (Student), “A Proposal to Provide Tips for Hosts at Stone’s End”, 328
Juan Vazquez (Student), “Why the United States Should Adopt Nuclear Power” (MLA-format research paper), 332
Donald Shoup, “Gone Parkin’”, 340
Part Five. The Researched Argument, 343
16. Finding and Evaluating Sources, 344
Formulating a Research Question, 345
Understanding Differences in the Kinds of Sources, 346
Books versus Periodicals versus Web Sites, 349
Scholarly Books versus Trade Books, 350
Scholarly Journals versus Magazines, 350
Print Sources versus Cyberspace Sources, 350
Finding Books: Searching Your Library’s Online Catalog, 351
Finding Articles: Searching a Licensed Database, 351
What Is a Licensed Database?, 352
Keyword Searching, 353
Illustration of a Database Search, 353
Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web, 355
The Logic of the Internet, 355
Using Web Search Engines, 356
Determining Where You Are on the Web, 357
Reading Your Sources Rhetorically, 357
Reading with Your Own Goals in Mind, 357
Reading with Rhetorical Awareness, 358
Taking Effective Notes, 359
Evaluating Sources, 360
Angle of Vision, 360
Degree of Advocacy, 361
Reliability, 363
Credibility, 363
Understanding the Rhetoric of Web Sites, 363
The Web as a Unique Rhetorical Environment, 363
Analyzing the Purpose of a Site and Your Own Research Purpose, 363
Sorting Sites by Domain Type, 364
Criteria for Evaluating a Web Site, 365
Conclusion, 367
17. Using, Citing, and Documenting Sources, 368
Using Sources for Your Own Purposes, 368
Creating Rhetorically Effective Attributive Tags, 370
Using Attributive Tags to Separate Your Ideas from Your Source’s, 370
Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response, 371
Working Sources into Your Own Prose, 371
Summarizing, 372
Paraphrasing, 372
Quoting, 373
Avoiding Plagiarism, 375
Understanding Parenthetical Citation Systems with Bibliographies, 376
Understanding MLA Style, 377
The MLA Method of In-Text Citation, 377
MLA Format for the “Works Cited” List, 378
MLA “Works Cited” Citations, 379
Student Example of an MLA-Style Research Paper, 386
Understanding APA Style, 387
The APA Method of In-Text Citation, 387
APA Format for the “References” List, 388
APA “References” Citations, 389
Conclusion, 393
Student Example of an APA-Style Research Paper, 393
Megan Matthews (Student), “Sounding the Alarm: Navy Sonar and the Survival of Whales” (APA-format research paper), 394
Appendix 1. Informal Fallacies, 401
The Problem of Conclusiveness in an Argument, 401
An Overview of Informal Fallacies, 402
Fallacies of Pathos, 403
Fallacies of Ethos, 404
Fallacies of Logos, 405
Appendix 2. Small Group Strategies for Practicing Argument Skills, 409
From Conflict to Consensus: How to Get the Most Out of the Writing Community, 409
Avoiding Bad Habits of Group Behavior, 409
The Value of Group Work for Writers, 410
Forming Writing Communities: Skills and Roles, 411
Working in Groups of Five to Seven People, 411
Working in Pairs, 413
Group Project: Holding a “Norming Session” to Define “Good Argumentative Writing”, 415
“Bloody Ice”, 417
“RSS Should Not Provide Dorm Room Carpets”, 418
“Sterling Hall Dorm Food”, 419
“ROTC Courses Should Not Get College Credit”, 420
“Legalization of Prostitution”, 422
Credits, 423
Index, 426
Readings and Visual Arguments, IBC-1

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