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Copyright, iv
About the Author, vi
Preface to Instructors, vii
Acknowledgments, xxiv
Supplements, xxix
Preface to Students Using this Book as a Tool for Learning, xxx
Biological Science, 3e, FC-1
1. Biology and the Tree of Life, 1
1.1. The Cell Theory, 2
Are All Organisms Made of Cells?, 2
Where Do Cells Come From?, 2
1.2. The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection, 4
What Is Evolution?, 4
What Is Natural Selection?, 4
1.3. The Tree of Life, 6
Linnean Taxonomy, 7
Box 1.1. Scientific Names and Terms, 8
Using Molecules to Understand the Tree of Life, 8
1.4. Doing Biology, 11
Why Do Giraffes Have Long Necks? An Introduction to Hypothesis Testing, 11
Why Are Chili Peppers Hot? An Introduction to Experimental Design, 12
Chapter Review, 15
Unit 1. The Molecules of Life, 18
2. Water and Carbon: The Chemical Basis of Life, 18
2.1. The Building Blocks of Chemical Evolution, 19
What Atoms Are Found in Organisms?, 19
How Does Covalent Bonding Hold Molecules Together?, 20
How Does Ionic Bonding Hold Ionic Compounds Together?, 21
Some Simple Molecules Formed from H, C, N, and O, 23
2.2. The Early Oceans and the Properties of Water, 25
How Does Water’s Structure Correlate with Its Properties?, 26
Acid–Base Reactions and pH, 29
Box 2.1. What Is a Buffer?, 30
2.3. Chemical Reactions, Chemical Evolution, and Chemical Energy, 31
How Do Chemical Reactions Happen?, 31
What Is Energy?, 32
Chemical Evolution: A Model System, 32
How Did Chemical Energy Change during Chemical Evolution?, 36
2.4. The Importance of Carbon, 38
Chapter Review, 41
3. Protein Structure and Function, 43
3.1. What Do Proteins Do?, 44
3.2. Early Origin-of-Life Experiments, 45
3.3. Amino Acids and Polymerization, 46
The Structure of Amino Acids, 46
How Do Amino Acids Link to Form Proteins?, 48
3.4. What Do Proteins Look Like?, 52
Primary Structure, 52
Secondary Structure, 53
Tertiary Structure, 54
Quaternary Structure, 56
Folding and Function, 56
BOX 3.1. Prions, 58
3.5. Enzymes: An Introduction to Catalysis, 58
How Do Enzymes Work?, 60
Was the First Living Entity a Protein?, 64
Chapter Review, 65
4. Nucleic Acids and the RNA World, 67
4.1. What Is a Nucleic Acid?, 68
Could Chemical Evolution Result in the Production of Nucleotides?, 69
How Do Nucleotides Polymerize to Form Nucleic Acids?, 69
4.2. DNA Structure and Function, 71
What Is the Nature of DNA’s Secondary Structure?, 71
DNA Is an Information-Containing Molecule, 73
Is DNA a Catalytic Molecule?, 74
Box 4.1. The Human Side of Research, 75
4.3. RNA Structure and Function, 76
RNA as an Information-Containing Molecule, 77
Is RNA a Catalytic Molecule?, 77
4.4. The First Life-Form, 77
Chapter Review, 79
5. An Introduction to Carbohydrates, 82
5.1. Sugars as Monomers, 83
5.2. The Structure of Polysaccharides, 84
Starch: A Storage Polysaccharide in Plants, 85
Glycogen: A Highly Branched Storage Polysaccharide in Animals, 86
Cellulose: A Structural Polysaccharide in Plants, 86
Chitin: A Structural Polysaccharide in Fungi and Animals, 86
Peptidoglycan: A Structural Polysaccharide in Bacteria, 86
Polysaccharides and Chemical Evolution, 86
Box 5.1. Lactose Intolerance and Galactosemia, 88
Box 5.2. How Do the Penicillins and Cephalosporins Kill Bacteria?, 88
5.3. What Do Carbohydrates Do?, 89
Carbohydrates as Structural Molecules, 89
The Role of Carbohydrates in Cell Identity, 90
The Role of Carbohydrates in Energy Storage, 91
Chapter Review, 93
6. Lipids, Membranes, and the First Cells, 95
6.1. Lipids, 96
What Is a Lipid?, 96
A Look at Three Types of Lipids Found in Cells, 97
The Structures of Membrane Lipids, 99
6.2. Phospholipid Bilayers, 99
Artificial Membranes as an Experimental System, 100
Selective Permeability of Lipid Bilayers, 101
Does the Type of Lipid in a Membrane Affect Its Permeability?, 102
Why Does Temperature Affect the Fluidity and Permeability of Membranes?, 104
6.3. Why Molecules Move across Lipid Bilayers: Diffusion and Osmosis, 105
6.4. Membrane Proteins, 107
Systems for Studying Membrane Proteins, 109
How Do Membrane Proteins Affect Ions and Molecules?, 110
Chapter Review, 117
Unit 2. Cell Structure and Function, 119
7. Inside the Cell, 119
7.1. What’s Inside the Cell?, 120
Prokaryotic Cells, 120
Eukaryotic Cells, 122
How Does Cell Structure Correlate with Function?, 130
The Dynamic Cell, 131
Box 7.1. How Does a Centrifuge Work?, 133
7.2. The Nuclear Envelope: Transport Into and Out of the Nucleus, 134
How Are Molecules Imported into the Nucleus?, 135
7.3. The Endomembrane System: Manufacturing and Shipping Proteins, 136
Entering the Endomembrane System: The Signal Hypothesis, 138
Getting from the ER to the Golgi, 139
What Happens Inside the Golgi Apparatus?, 140
How Are Products Shipped from the Golgi?, 140
7.4. The Dynamic Cytoskeleton, 141
Actin Filaments, 141
Intermediate Filaments, 143
Microtubules, 144
Cilia and Flagella: Moving the Entire Cell, 146
Chapter Review, 148
8. Cell–Cell Interactions, 150
8.1. The Cell Surface, 151
The Structure and Function of an Extracellular Layer, 151
The Plant Cell Wall, 152
The Extracellular Matrix in Animals, 153
8.2. How Do Adjacent Cells Connect and Communicate?, 154
Cell–Cell Attachments, 155
Box 8.1. What Happens When the Extracellular Matrix Is Defective?, 156
Cell–Cell Gaps, 161
8.3. How Do Distant Cells Communicate?, 161
Hormones Are Long-Distance Messengers, 162
Signal Reception, 162
Signal Processing, 163
Signal Response, 167
Signal Deactivation, 167
Chapter Review, 168
9. Cellular Respiration and Fermentation, 170
9.1. The Nature of Chemical Energy and Redox Reactions, 171
How Does ATP Drive Endergonic Reactions?, 172
What Is a Redox Reaction?, 173
9.2. An Overview of Cellular Respiration, 175
Processing Glucose: Glycolysis, 176
Pyruvate Processing, 176
The Krebs Cycle, 176
Electron Transport, 176
Methods of Producing ATP, 178
9.3. Glycolysis, 180
A Closer Look at the Glycolytic Reactions, 180
How Is Glycolysis Regulated?, 181
9.4. Pyruvate Processing, 182
9.5. The Krebs Cycle, 183
How Is the Krebs Cycle Regulated?, 185
What Happens to the NADH and FADH2?, 186
9.6. Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis, 187
Components of the Electron Transport Chain, 187
The Chemiosmotic Hypothesis, 188
How Is the Electron Transport Chain Organized?, 189
The Discovery of ATP Synthase, 190
Oxidative Phosphorylation, 191
9.7. Fermentation, 192
9.8. How Does Cellular Respiration Interact with Other Metabolic Pathways?, 194
Processing Proteins and Fats as Fuel, 194
Anabolic Pathways Synthesize Key Molecules, 195
Chapter Review, 196
10. Photosynthesis, 198
10.1. An Overview of Photosynthesis, 199
Photosynthesis: Two Linked Sets of Reactions, 199
The Structure of the Chloroplast, 200
Box 10.1. Types of Plastids, 201
10.2. How Does Chlorophyll Capture Light Energy?, 201
Photosynthetic Pigments Absorb Light, 202
Box 10.2. How Do Researchers Measure Absorption Spectra?, 204
When Light Is Absorbed, Electrons Enter an Excited State, 205
10.3. The Discovery of Photosystems I and II, 207
How Does Photosystem II Work?, 208
How Does Photosystem I Work?, 210
The Z Scheme: Photosystems I and II Work Together, 211
10.4. How Is Carbon Dioxide Reduced to Produce Glucose?, 213
The Calvin Cycle, 213
The Discovery of Rubisco, 215
How Is Carbon Dioxide Delivered to Rubisco?, 215
What Happens to the Sugar That Is Produced by Photosynthesis?, 218
Chapter Review, 219
11. The Cell Cycle, 222
11.1. Mitosis and the Cell Cycle, 223
M Phase and Interphase, 224
The Discovery of the Cell Cycle, 225
The Discovery of the Gap Phases, 225
Box 11.1. Cell-Culture Methods, 225
11.2. How Does Mitosis Take Place?, 227
Events in Mitosis, 227
Cytokinesis, 229
Box 11.2. How Do Bacteria Divide?, 230
How Do Chromosomes Move during Mitosis?, 232
11.3. Control of the Cell Cycle, 233
The Discovery of Cell-Cycle Regulatory Molecules, 233
Cell-Cycle Checkpoints, 236
11.4. Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division, 237
Properties of Cancer Cells, 238
Cancer Involves Loss of Cell-Cycle Control, 238
Chapter Review, 240
Unit 3. Genes Structure and Expression, 243
12. Meiosis, 243
12.1. How Does Meiosis Occur?, 244
An Overview of Meiosis, 245
The Phases of Meiosis I, 249
The Phases of Meiosis II, 250
A Closer Look at Key Events in Prophase of Meiosis I, 250
Box 12.1. Karyotyping Techniques, 252
12.2. The Consequences of Meiosis, 254
Chromosomes and Heredity, 254
How Does the Separation and Distribution of Homologous Chromosomes Produce Genetic Variation?, 255
The Role of Crossing Over, 255
Box 12.2. How Does Recombination Occur in Bacteria?, 256
How Does Fertilization Affect Genetic Variation?, 257
12.3. Why Does Meiosis Exist? Why Sex?, 258
The Paradox of Sex, 258
The Purifying Selection Hypothesis, 258
The Changing Environment Hypothesis, 259
12.4. Mistakes in Meiosis, 260
How Do Mistakes Occur?, 261
Why Do Mistakes Occur?, 262
Chapter Review, 263
13. Mendel and the Gene, 265
13.1. Mendel’s Experiments with a Single Trait, 265
What Questions Was Mendel Trying to Answer?, 266
Garden Peas Serve as the First Model Organism in Genetics, 266
Inheritance of a Single Trait, 268
The Nature and Behavior of the Hereditary Determinants, 269
Testing the Model, 271
13.2. Mendel’s Experiments with Two Traits, 272
Using a Testcross to Confirm Predictions, 272
13.3. The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance, 274
13.4. Testing and Extending the Chromosome Theory, 276
The Discovery of Sex Chromosomes, 276
X-Linked Inheritance and the Chromosome Theory, 277
What Happens When Genes Are Located on the Same Chromosome?, 278
13.5. Extending Mendel’s Rules, 281
Multiple Alleles and Polymorphic Traits, 282
Incomplete Dominance and Codominance, 282
Pleiotropy, 283
Genes Are Affected by the Physical Environment and Genetic Environment, 283
Quantitative Traits, 284
13.6. Applying Mendel’s Rules to Humans, 286
Are Alleles Recessive or Dominant?, 287
Is the Trait Autosomal or Sex-Linked?, 288
Chapter Review, 289
14. DNA and the Gene: Synthesis and Repair, 295
14.1. DNA as the Hereditary Material, 296
Is DNA the Genetic Material?, 297
14.2. Testing Early Hypotheses about DNA Synthesis, 299
The Meselson–Stahl Experiment, 300
14.3. A Comprehensive Model for DNA Synthesis, 303
How Does Replication Get Started?, 303
How Is the Helix Opened and Stabilized?, 304
How Is the Leading Strand Synthesized?, 304
How Is the Lagging Strand Synthesized?, 305
14.4. Replicating the Ends of Linear Chromosomes, 308
14.5. Repairing Mistakes and Damage, 310
How Does DNA Polymerase Proofread?, 310
Nucleotide Excision Repair, 311
Xeroderma Pigmentosum: A Case Study, 312
Chapter Review, 313
15. How Genes Work, 316
15.1. What Do Genes Do?, 317
15.2. The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology, 319
RNA as the Intermediary between Genes and Proteins, 319
The Central Dogma, 320
15.3. The Genetic Code, 322
How Long Is a Word in the Genetic Code?, 322
How Did Researchers Crack the Code?, 324
Box 15.1. The Evolution of the Genetic Code, 326
Chapter Review, 326
16. Transcription and Translation, 329
16.1. Transcription in Bacteria, 330
RNA Polymerase Structure and Function, 331
Initiation: How Does Transcription Begin in Bacteria?, 331
Elongation and Termination, 332
16.2. Transcription and RNA Processing in Eukaryotes, 333
Box 16.1. Toxins and Transcription, 334
The Startling Discovery of Eukaryotic Genes in Pieces, 335
Exons, Introns, and RNA Splicing, 335
Adding Caps and Tails to Transcripts, 336
16.3. An Introduction to Translation, 337
Ribosomes Are the Site of Protein Synthesis, 337
How Does an mRNA Triplet Specify an Amino Acid?, 338
16.4. The Role of Transfer RNA, 339
What Do tRNAs Look Like?, 340
How Many tRNAs Are There?, 341
16.5. Ribosomes and the Mechanism of Translation, 342
Initiation, 343
Elongation, 344
Termination, 345
16.6. What Is the Molecular Basis of Mutation?, 347
Point Mutation, 347
Chromosome-Level Mutations, 348
Chapter Review, 350
17. Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria, 352
17.1. Gene Regulation and Information Flow, 353
Mechanisms of Regulation—An Overview, 353
Metabolizing Lactose—A Model System, 354
17.2. Identifying the Genes Involved in Lactose Metabolism, 355
How Were the Genes Found?, 355
Different Classes of Lactose Metabolism Mutants, 356
Several Genes Are Involved in Metabolizing Lactose, 357
17.3. Mechanisms of Negative Control: Discovery of the Repressor, 358
The lac Operon, 358
Why Has the lac Operon Model Been So Important?, 360
A New Twist on Negative Control: Comparing the trp and lac Operons, 360
Box 17.1. DNA Footprinting, 361
17.4. Mechanisms of Positive Control: Catabolite Repression, 362
How Does Glucose Influence Formation of the CAP-cAMP Complex?, 362
17.5. The Operator and the Repressor—An Introduction to DNA-Binding Proteins, 365
How Was the Operator Found?, 365
How Does the Repressor Bind to the Operator?, 366
What’s Next?, 367
Chapter Review, 367
18. Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes, 370
18.1. Mechanisms of Gene Regulation—An Overview, 371
18.2. Eukaryotic DNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression, 372
How Is Chromatin Structured?, 372
Evidence that Chromatin Structure Is Altered in Active Genes, 373
How Is Chromatin Altered?, 373
Chromatin Modifications Can Be Inherited, 374
18.3. Regulatory Sequences and Regulatory Proteins, 374
Some Regulatory Sequences Are Near the Promoter, 375
Some Regulatory Sequences Are Far from the Promoter, 375
What Role Do Regulatory Proteins Play?, 377
18.4. Transcription Initiation, 379
18.5. Post-Transcriptional Control, 380
Alternative Splicing of mRNAs, 381
mRNA Stability and RNA Interference, 381
How Is Translation Controlled?, 382
Post-Translational Control, 383
A 50-Year Retrospective: How Does Gene Expression in Bacteria Compare to That in Eukaryotes?, 383
18.6. Linking Cancer with Defects in Gene Regulation, 384
Chapter Review, 386
19. Analyzing and Engineering Genes, 389
19.1. Using Recombinant DNA Techniques to Manufacture Proteins: The Effort to Cure Pituitary Dwarfism, 390
Why Did Early Efforts to Treat the Disease Fail?, 390
Using Recombinant DNA Technology to Produce a Safe Supply of Growth Hormone, 391
Ethical Concerns over Recombinant Growth Hormone, 395
19.2. Another Approach to Cloning: The Polymerase Chain Reaction, 395
PCR in Action: Studying Fossil DNA, 397
Box 19.1. Southern Blotting, 398
19.3. Dideoxy DNA Sequencing, 398
19.4. Finding Genes by Mapping: The Huntington’s Disease Story, 401
How Was the Huntington’s Disease Gene Found?, 401
What Are the Benefits of Finding a Disease Gene?, 404
Ethical Concerns over Genetic Testing, 405
19.5. Can Gene Therapy Cure Inherited Diseases in Humans? Research on Severe Immune Disorders, 405
How Can Novel Alleles Be Introduced into Human Cells?, 406
Using Gene Therapy to Treat X-Linked Immune Deficiency, 408
Ethical Concerns over Gene Therapy, 409
19.6. Biotechnology in Agriculture: The Development of Golden Rice, 409
Rice as a Target Crop, 410
Synthesizing β-Carotene in Rice, 410
The Agrobacterium Transformation System, 410
Using the Ti Plasmid to Produce Golden Rice, 411
Chapter Review, 412
20. Genomics, 415
20.1. Whole-Genome Sequencing, 416
How Are Complete Genomes Sequenced?, 416
Which Genomes Are Being Sequenced, and Why?, 417
Which Sequences Are Genes?, 418
20.2. Bacterial and Archaeal Genomes, 419
The Natural History of Prokaryotic Genomes, 419
Evidence for Lateral Gene Transfer, 420
20.3. Eukaryotic Genomes, 421
Natural History: Types of Sequences, 421
Gene Duplication and the Origin of Gene Families, 424
Insights from the Human Genome Project, 425
20.4. Functional Genomics and Proteomics, 428
What Is Functional Genomics?, 428
What Is Proteomics?, 429
20.5. Can Genomics Help Improve Human Health and Welfare?, 429
Identifying Potential Drug Targets, 430
Designing Vaccines, 430
Finding Genes Associated with Inherited Disease: The HapMap Project, 431
Chapter Review, 431
Unit 4. Developmental Biology, 434
21. Principles of Development, 434
21.1. Four Essential Developmental Processes, 435
Cell Proliferation and Programmed Cell Death, 435
Cell Movement and Expansion, 436
Cell Differentiation, 436
Box 21.1. Apoptosis: Programmed Cell Death, 437
Cell-Cell Interactions, 437
21.2. The Role of Differential Gene Expression in Development, 438
Are Differentiated Animal Cells Genetically Equivalent?, 438
Box 21.2. Human Cloning?, 439
What Is the Most Important Level of Control over Gene Expression?, 439
21.3. What Triggers Differential Gene Expression?, 440
Master Regulators Set Up the Major Body Axes, 441
Regulatory Genes Provide Increasingly Specific Positional Information, 444
Cell-Cell Signals and Regulatory Genes Are Evolutionarily Conserved, 446
Common Signaling Pathways Are Used in Many Contexts, 447
21.4. Changes in Developmental Pathways Underlie Evolutionary Change, 447
Chapter Review, 449
22. An Introduction to Animal Development, 451
22.1. Gametogenesis, 452
Sperm Structure and Function, 452
Egg Structure and Function, 453
22.2. Fertilization, 454
Fertilization in Sea Urchins, 454
Fertilization in Mammals, 457
22.3. Cleavage, 457
Variation in Cleavage Patterns, 457
What Role Do Cytoplasmic Determinants Play?, 458
Box 22.1. What Happens during Cleavage in Humans?, 459
22.4. Gastrulation, 460
22.5. Organogenesis, 462
Organizing Mesoderm into Somites: Precursors of Muscle, Skeleton, and Skin, 462
Differentiation of Muscle Cells, 464
Chapter Review, 465
23. An Introduction to Plant Development, 467
23.1. Fertilization, 469
23.2. Embryogenesis, 470
What Happens during Embryogenesis?, 470
Which Genes and Proteins Set Up Body Axes?, 472
23.3. Vegetative Development, 473
Meristems Are Responsible for Continuous Growth and Development, 473
Which Genes and Proteins Determine Leaf Shape?, 474
23.4. Reproductive Development, 475
The Floral Meristem and the Flower, 475
Which Genes Control the Development of Flowers?, 476
Chapter Review, 478
Unit 5. Evolutionary Processes and Patterns, 481
24. Evolution by Natural Selection, 481
24.1. The Evolution of Evolutionary Thought, 482
Box 24.1. Why Darwin Gets Most of the Credit, 483
24.2. The Pattern of Evolution: Have Species Changed through Time?, 484
Evidence for Change through Time, 484
Evidence That Species Are Related, 486
Evolution Is Change through Time, 489
24.3. The Process of Evolution: How Does Natural Selection Work?, 490
24.4. Evolution in Action: Recent Research on Natural Selection, 491
How Did Mycobacterium tuberculosis Become Resistant to Antibiotics?, 491
Why Are Beak Size, Beak Shape, and Body Size Changing in Galápagos Finches?, 493
24.5. The Nature of Natural Selection and Adaptation, 495
Selection Acts on Individuals, but Evolutionary Change Occurs in Populations, 496
Evolution Is Not Goal-Directed or Progressive, 496
Animals Do Not Do Things for the Good of the Species, 497
Not All Traits Are Adaptive, 497
Box 24.2. Which Allele Frequencies Changed When Finch Beaks Changed?, 499
Chapter Review, 500
25. Evolutionary Processes, 503
25.1. Analyzing Change in Allele Frequencies: The Hardy-Weinberg Principle, 504
The Hardy–Weinberg Model Makes Important Assumptions, 504
How Does the Hardy–Weinberg Principle Serve as a Null Hypothesis?, 506
25.2. Patterns of Natural Selection, 508
Directional Selection, 508
Stabilizing Selection, 509
Disruptive Selection, 509
25.3. Genetic Drift, 511
Experimental Studies of Genetic Drift, 512
Genetic Drift in Natural Populations, 513
25.4. Gene Flow, 514
25.5. Mutation, 515
Mutation as an Evolutionary Mechanism, 516
What Role Does Mutation Play in Evolutionary Change?, 516
25.6. Nonrandom Mating, 518
Inbreeding, 518
Sexual Selection, 520
Chapter Review, 524
26. Speciation, 526
26.1. How Are Species Defined and Identified?, 527
The Biological Species Concept, 527
The Morphospecies Concept, 527
The Phylogenetic Species Concept, 528
Species Definitions in Action: The Case of the Dusky Seaside Sparrow, 529
26.2. Isolation and Divergence in Allopatry, 531
Dispersal and Colonization Isolate Populations, 531
Vicariance Isolates Populations, 532
26.3. Isolation and Divergence in Sympatry, 533
Can Natural Selection Cause Speciation Even When Gene Flow Is Possible?, 534
How Can Polyploidy Lead to Speciation?, 535
26.4. What Happens When Isolated Populations Come into Contact?, 537
Reinforcement, 538
Hybrid Zones, 538
New Species through Hybridization, 538
Chapter Review, 541
27. Phylogenies and the History of Life, 543
27.1. Tools for Studying History: Phylogenetic Trees, 543
How Do Researchers Estimate Phylogenies?, 544
27.2. Tools for Studying History: The Fossil Record, 548
Box 27.1. The Molecular Clock, 551
27.3. The Cambrian Explosion, 554
Cambrian Fossils: An Overview, 554
The Doushantuo Microfossils, 554
The Ediacaran Faunas, 555
The Burgess Shale Faunas, 555
Did Gene Duplications Trigger the Cambrian Explosion?, 556
27.4. Adaptive Radiations, 558
Ecological Opportunity as a Trigger, 558
Morphological Innovation as a Trigger, 559
27.5. Mass Extinctions, 560
How Do Background and Mass Extinctions Differ?, 561
Box 27.2. The End-Permian Extinction, 561
What Killed the Dinosaurs?, 562
Chapter Review, 564
Unit 6. The Diversification of Life, 566
28. Bacteria and Archaea, 566
28.1. Why Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?, 568
Some Bacteria Cause Disease, 568
Bacteria Can Clean Up Pollution, 569
Extremophiles, 570
How Do Small Cells Affect Global Change?, 571
28.2. How Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?, 573
Using Enrichment Cultures, 573
Using Direct Sequencing, 574
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies, 575
Box 28.1. A Model Organism: Escherichia coli, 576
28.3. What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Bacteria and Archaea?, 578
Morphological Diversity, 578
Metabolic Diversity, 579
28.4. Key Lineages of Bacteria and Archaea, 584
Bacteria, 584
Bacteria > Firmicutes, 585
Bacteria > Spirochaetes (Spirochetes), 585
Bacteria > Actinobacteria, 586
Bacteria > Cyanobacteria, 586
Bacteria > Chlamydiales, 587
Bacteria > Proteobacteria, 587
Box 28.2. Lateral Gene Transfer and Metabolic Diversity in Bacteria, 588
Archaea, 589
Archaea > Crenarchaeota, 589
Archaea > Euryarchaeota, 590
Chapter Review, 590
29. Protists, 593
Box 29.1. How Should We Name the Major Branches on the Tree of Life?, 594
29.1. Why Do Biologists Study Protists?, 595
Impacts on Human Health and Welfare, 595
Ecological Importance of Protists, 597
29.2. How Do Biologists Study Protists?, 599
Microscopy: Studying Cell Structure, 599
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies, 600
Discovering New Lineages via Direct Sequencing, 601
Box 29.2. A Model Organism: Dictyostelium discoideum, 602
29.3. What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Protists?, 603
What Morphological Innovations Evolved in Protists?, 603
How Do Protists Find Food?, 607
BOX 29.3 Why Can Eukaryotes Have Such Large Cells?, 608
How Do Protists Move?, 611
How Do Protists Reproduce?, 612
29.4. Key Lineages of Protists, 615
Excavata, 615
Excavata > Diplomonadida, 616
Excavata > Parabasalida, 616
Discicristata, 617
Discicristata > Euglenida, 617
Alveolata, 617
Alveolata > Apicomplexa, 617
Alveolata > Ciliata, 618
Alveolata > Dinoflagellata, 618
Stramenopila (Heterokonta), 619
Stramenopila > Diatoms, 619
Stramenopila > Oomycota (Water Molds), 620
Stramenopila > Phaeophyta (Brown Algae), 620
Rhizaria, 621
Rhizaria > Foraminafera, 621
Plantae, 621
Plantae > Rhodophyta (Red Algae), 622
Amoebozoa, 622
Amoebozoa > Myxogastrida (Plasmodial Slime Molds), 623
Chapter Review, 623
30. Green Plants, 626
30.1. Why Do Biologists Study the Green Plants?, 627
Plants Provide Ecosystem Services, 627
Plants Provide Humans with Food, Fuel, Fiber, Building Materials, and Medicines, 628
30.2. How Do Biologists Study Green Plants?, 630
Analyzing Morphological Traits, 630
Box 30.1. A Model Organism: Arabidopsis thaliana, 631
Using the Fossil Record, 633
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies, 634
30.3. What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Green Plants?, 636
The Transition to Land, I: How Did Plants Adapt to Dry Conditions?, 636
The Transition to Land, II: How Do Plants Reproduce in Dry Conditions?, 639
The Angiosperm Radiation, 649
30.4. Key Lineages of Green Plants, 650
Green Algae, 650
Green Algae > Coleochaetophyceae (Coleochaetes), 651
Green Algae > Ulvophyceae (Ulvophytes), 652
Green Algae > Charaphyceae (Stoneworts), 652
Nonvascular Plants (“Bryophytes”), 653
Nonvascular Plants > Bryophyta (Mosses), 653
Nonvascular Plants > Anthocerophyta (Hornworts), 654
Nonvascular Plants > Hepaticophyta (Liverworts), 654
Seedless Vascular Plants, 655
Vascular Plants > Lycophyta (Lycophytes, or Club Mosses), 655
Vascular Plants > Psilotophyta (Whisk Ferns), 656
Vascular Plants > Sphenotophyta (or Equisetophyta) (Horsetails), 656
Vascular Plants > Pteridophyta (Ferns), 657
Seed Plants, 658
Seed Plants > Gymnosperms > Cycadophyta (Cycads), 658
Seed Plants > Gymnosperms > Ginkgophyta (Ginkgoes), 659
Seed Plants > Gymnosperms > Gnetophyta (Gnetophytes), 659
Seed Plants > Gymnosperms > Pinophyta (Pines), 660
Seed Plants > Gymnosperms > Coniferophyta (Conifers), 660
Seed Plants > Anthophyta (Angiosperms), 661
Chapter Review, 662
31. Fungi, 664
31.1. Why Do Biologists Study Fungi?, 665
Fungi Provide Nutrients for Land Plants, 665
Fungi Speed the Carbon Cycle on Land, 665
Fungi Have Important Economic Impacts, 667
Fungi Are Key Model Organisms in Eukaryotic Genetics, 667
31.2. How Do Biologists Study Fungi?, 668
Analyzing Morphological Traits, 668
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies, 670
Experimental Studies of Mutualism, 672
31.3. What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Fungi?, 673
Fungi Participate in Several Types of Mutualisms, 674
What Adaptations Make Fungi Such Effective Decomposers?, 676
Variation in Life Cycles, 677
31.4. Key Lineages of Fungi, 680
Chitridiomycota (Chytrids), 681
Microsporidia, 681
Zygomycota, 682
Glomeromycota, 683
Basidiomycota (Club Fungi), 683
Ascomycota (Sac Fungi), 684
Ascomycota > Lichen-Formers, 684
Ascomycota > Non-Lichen-Formers, 685
Chapter Review, 685
32. An Introduction to Animals, 688
32.1. Why Do Biologists Study Animals?, 689
32.2. How Do Biologists Study Animals?, 690
Analyzing Comparative Morphology, 690
Box 32.1. A Model Organism: Hydra, 692
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies, 696
32.3. What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Animals?, 698
Feeding, 699
Movement, 702
Reproduction and Life Cycles, 703
32.4. Key Lineages of Animals: Basal Groups, 706
Porifera (Sponges), 707
Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals, Anemones, Hydroids), 708
Ctenophora (Comb Jellies), 709
Acoelomorpha, 709
Chapter Review, 710
33. Protostome Animals, 712
Box 33.1. Model Organisms: Caenorhabditis and Drosophila, 713
33.1. An Overview of Protostome Evolution, 714
What Is a Lophotrochozoan?, 714
What Is an Ecdysozoan?, 715
33.2. Themes in the Diversification of Protostomes, 716
How Do Body Plans Vary among Phyla?, 716
The Water-to-Land Transition, 718
How Do Protostomes Feed, Move, and Reproduce?, 719
33.3. Key Lineages: Lophotrochozoans, 721
Lophotrochozoans > Rotifera (Rotifers), 722
Lophotrochozoans > Platyhelminthes (Flatworms), 722
Lophotrochozoans > Annelida (Segmented Worms), 724
Mollusca (Mollusks), 725
Mollusca > Bivalvia (Clams, Mussels, Scallops, Oysters), 725
Mollusca > Gastropoda (Snails, Slugs, Nudibranchs), 726
Mollusca > Polyplacophora (Chitons), 727
Mollusca > Cephalopoda (Nautilus, Cuttlefish, Squid, Octopuses), 727
33.4. Key Lineages: Ecdysozoans, 728
Ecdysozoans > Nematoda (Roundworms), 728
Arthropoda (Arthropods), 729
Arthropoda > Myriapods (Millipedes, Centipedes), 730
Arthropoda > Chelicerata (Spiders, Ticks, Mites, Horseshoe Crabs, Daddy Longlegs, Scorpions), 730
Arthropoda > Insecta (Insects), 731
Arthropoda > Crustaceans (Shrimp, Lobster, Crabs, Barnacles, Isopods, Copepods), 734
Chapter Review, 735
34. Deuterostome Animals, 737
34.1. An Overview of Deuterostome Evolution, 738
What Is an Echinoderm?, 738
What Is a Chordate?, 739
What Is a Vertebrate?, 740
34.2. An Overview of Vertebrate Evolution, 741
The Vertebrate Fossil Record, 741
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies, 743
Box 34.1. What Is a Fish?, 744
34.3. What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Deuterostomes?, 744
Feeding, 745
Movement, 746
Reproduction, 747
Box 34.2. The Evolution of Flight in Birds, 748
34.4. Key Lineages: Echinodermata, 751
Echinodermata > Asteroidea (Sea Stars), 752
Echinodermata > Echinoidea (Sea Urchins and Sand Dollars), 752
34.5. Key Lineages: Chordata, 753
Chordata > Urochordata (Tunicates), 753
Chordata > Cephalochordata (Lancelets), 754
Chordata > Craniata > Myxinoidea (Hagfish) and Petromyzontoidea (Lampreys), 754
Chordata > Vertebrata > Chondrichthyes (Sharks, Rays, Skates), 755
Chordata > Vertebrata > Actinopterygii (Ray-Finned Fishes), 756
Chordata > Vertebrata > Sarcopterygii > Actinistia (Coelacanths) and Dipnoi (Lungfish), 756
Chordata > Vertebrata > Amphibia (Frogs, Salamanders, Caecilians), 757
Mammalia (Mammals), 757
Mammalia > Monotrema (Platypuses, Echidnas), 758
Mammalia > Marsupiala (Marsupials), 759
Mammalia > Eutheria (Placental Mammals), 759
Reptilia (Turtles, Snakes and Lizards, Crocodiles, Birds), 760
Reptilia > Testudinia (Turtles), 760
Reptilia > Lepidosauria (Lizards, Snakes), 761
Reptilia > Crocodilia (Crocodiles, Alligators), 761
Reptilia > Aves (Birds), 762
34.6. Key Lineages: The Hominin Radiation, 762
The Primates, 762
Fossil Humans, 763
The Out-of-Africa Hypothesis, 766
Chapter Review, 767
35. Viruses, 769
35.1. Why Do Biologists Study Viruses?, 770
Recent Viral Epidemics in Humans, 771
Current Viral Epidemics in Humans: HIV, 771
35.2. How Do Biologists Study Viruses?, 772
Analyzing Morphological Traits, 773
Analyzing Variation in Growth Cycles: Replicative and Latent Growth, 774
Box 35.1. How Are Vaccines Developed?, 775
Analyzing the Phases of the Replicative Cycle, 775
Box 35.2. HIV Drug Cocktails and the Evolution of Drug Resistance, 782
35.3. What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Viruses?, 782
The Nature of the Viral Genetic Material, 782
Where Did Viruses Come From?, 783
Emerging Viruses, Emerging Diseases, 784
Box 35.3. Where Did HIV Originate?, 785
35.4. Key Lineages of Viruses, 786
Double-Stranded DNA (dsDNA) Viruses, 787
RNA Reverse-Transcribing Viruses (Retroviruses), 787
Double-Stranded RNA (dsRNA) Viruses, 788
Negative-Sense Single-Stranded RNA ([-]ssRNA) Viruses, 788
Positive-Sense Single-Stranded RNA ([+]ssRNA) Viruses, 789
Chapter Review, 789
Unit 7. How Plants Work, 791
36. Plant Form and Function, 791
36.1. Plant Form: Themes with Many Variations, 792
The Root System, 793
The Shoot System, 795
The Leaf, 797
36.2. Primary Growth, 800
How Do Apical Meristems Produce the Primary Plant Body?, 800
A Closer Look at the Cells and Tissues of the Primary Plant Body, 802
36.3. Secondary Growth, 807
What Does Vascular Cambium Produce?, 808
What Does Cork Cambium Produce?, 809
The Structure of a Tree Trunk, 809
Chapter Review, 811
37. Water and Sugar Transport in Plants, 813
37.1. Water Potential and Water Movement, 814
What Factors Affect Water Potential?, 814
Calculating Water Potential, 815
Box 37.1. How Do Plants Adapt to Salty Soils?, 815
Water Potentials in Soils, Plants, and the Atmosphere, 816
Box 37.2. How Do Plants Adapt to Dry Soils?, 818
37.2. How Does Water Move from Roots to Shoots?, 819
Root Pressure and Short-Distance Transport, 819
Water Movement via Capillary Action, 821
The Cohesion-Tension Theory, 821
37.3. Water Absorption and Water Loss, 827
Limiting Water Loss, 827
Obtaining Carbon Dioxide under Water Stress, 827
37.4. Translocation, 828
The Anatomy of Phloem, 828
The Pressure-Flow Hypothesis, 830
Phloem Loading, 831
Box 37.3. How Are Solutes Transported across Membranes?, 832
Phloem Unloading, 833
Chapter Review, 835
38. Plant Nutrition, 837
38.1. Nutritional Requirements, 838
Which Nutrients Are Essential?, 838
What Happens when Key Nutrients Are in Short Supply?, 840
38.2. Soil, 841
Soil Conservation, 842
What Factors Affect Availability?, 843
38.3. Nutrient Uptake, 844
Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake, 845
Mechanisms of Ion Exclusion, 846
38.4. Nitrogen Fixation, 849
How Do Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Colonize Plant Roots?, 850
How Do Host Plants Respond to Contact from a Symbiotic Bacterium?, 850
38.5. Nutritional Adaptations of Plants, 851
Epiphytic Plants, 851
Parasitic Plants, 851
Carnivorous Plants, 852
Box 38.1. Can Phytoremediation Help Clean Up Contaminated Soils?, 852
Box 38.2. Why Are Bogs So Nutrient Poor?, 853
Chapter Review, 854
39. Plant Sensory Systems, Signals, and Responses, 857
39.1. An Overview of Information Processing, 858
How Do Cells Receive and Transduce an External Signal?, 859
How Are Cell–Cell Signals Transmitted?, 859
How Do Cells Respond to Cell–Cell Signals?, 859
39.2. Blue Light: The Phototropic Response, 860
Phototropins as Blue-Light Receptors, 860
Box 39.1. Plants Have an Array of Receptors and Responses to Blue Light, 862
Auxin as the Phototropic Hormone, 862
39.3. Red and Far-Red Light: Germination, Flowering, and Stem Elongation, 866
Phytochromes as Red/Far-Red Receptors, 867
Box 39.2. Photoperiodism, Flowering, and Photoreversibility, 868
How Were Phytochromes Isolated?, 868
39.4. Gravity: The Gravitropic Response, 870
The Statolith Hypothesis, 870
Auxin as the Gravitropic Signal, 871
Box 39.3. How Do Plants Respond to Wind and Touch?, 872
39.5. Youth, Maturity, and Aging: The Growth Responses, 873
Auxin and Apical Dominance, 873
Cytokinins and Cell Division, 874
Gibberellins and ABA: Growth and Dormancy, 875
Box 39.4. How Are Hormones Used to Grow Plant Cells in Culture?, 876
Box 39.5. The Molecular Mechanism of Hormone Action: A Case Study, 878
Ethylene and Senescence, 881
An Overview of Plant Growth Regulators, 881
39.6. Pathogens and Herbivores: The Defense Responses, 882
How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Pathogens?, 884
How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Herbivore Attack?, 887
Chapter Review, 889
40. Plant Reproduction, 892
40.1. An Introduction to Plant Reproduction, 893
Sexual Reproduction, 893
The Land Plant Life Cycle, 894
Asexual Reproduction, 894
40.2. Reproductive Structures, 896
When Does Flowering Occur?, 896
The General Structure of the Flower, 897
Box 40.1. Is There a Flowering Hormone?, 898
How Are Female Gametophytes Produced?, 900
How Are Male Gametophytes Produced?, 900
40.3. Pollination and Fertilization, 901
Pollination, 901
Box 40.2. Selfing, Outcrossing, and Self-Incompatiblity, 902
Fertilization, 904
40.4. The Seed, 905
Embryogenesis, 905
The Role of Drying in Seed Maturation, 906
Fruit Development and Seed Dispersal, 906
Box 40.3. Pure and Applied Science, 908
Seed Dormancy, 908
Seed Germination, 909
Chapter Review, 911
Unit 8. How Animals Work, 913
41. Animal Form and Function, 913
41.1. Form, Function, and Adaptation, 914
The Role of Fitness Trade-Offs, 914
Adaptation and Acclimatization, 916
41.2. Tissues, Organs, and Systems: How Does Structure Correlate with Function?, 916
Tissues, 917
Organs and Systems, 920
41.3. How Does Body Size Affect Animal Physiology?, 921
Surface Area/Volume Relationships, 921
41.4. Homeostasis, 925
The Role of Regulation and Feedback, 925
41.5. How Do Animals Regulate Body Temperature?, 926
Body Temperature and Homeostasis, 926
Gaining and Losing Heat, 927
Box 41.1. A Closer Look at Torpor and Hibernation, 930
Ectothermy versus Endothermy, 931
Chapter Review, 932
42. Water and Electrolyte Balance in Animals, 934
42.1. Osmoregulation and Osmotic Stress, 935
42.2. Water and Electrolyte Balance in Aquatic Environments, 937
How Do Sharks Osmoregulate?, 937
Box 42.1. Passive and Active Transport: A Quick Review, 940
How Do Salmon Osmoregulate?, 940
42.3. Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Insects, 941
How Do Insects Minimize Water Loss from the Body Surface?, 942
Types of Nitrogenous Wastes: Impact on Water Balance, 942
Maintaining Homeostasis: The Excretory System, 943
42.4. Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Vertebrates, 945
The Structure of the Kidney, 945
Filtration: The Renal Corpuscle, 947
Reabsorption: The Proximal Tubule, 948
Creating an Osmotic Gradient: The Loop of Henle, 949
Regulating Water and Electrolyte Balance: The Distal Tubule and the Collecting Duct, 952
Chapter Review, 954
43. Animal Nutrition, 957
43.1. Nutritional Requirements, 958
Meeting Basic Needs, 958
Can Nutrition Enhance Athletic Performance?, 960
43.2. Obtaining Food: The Structure and Function of Mouthparts, 961
43.3. How Are Nutrients Digested and Absorbed?, 963
The Mouth and Esophagus, 965
The Stomach, 965
Box 43.1. What Causes Gastric and Duodenal Ulcers?, 967
The Small Intestine, 968
The Large Intestine, 973
43.4. Nutritional Homeostasis—Glucose as a Case Study, 973
Insulin’s Role in Homeostasis, 974
The Type II Diabetes Mellitus Epidemic, 975
Chapter Review, 976
44. Gas Exchange and Circulation, 978
44.1. The Respiratory and Circulatory Systems, 979
44.2. Air and Water as Respiratory Media, 979
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Air?, 980
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Water?, 981
44.3. Organs of Gas Exchange, 981
Design Parameters: The Law of Diffusion, 982
How Do Gills Work?, 982
How Do Tracheae Work?, 984
How Do Lungs Work?, 985
Box 44.1. Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Premature Infants, 988
Homeostatic Control of Ventilation, 988
44.4. How Are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transported in Blood?, 989
Structure and Function of Hemoglobin, 989
CO₂ Transport and the Buffering of Blood pH, 992
Box 44.2. ABO and Rh Blood Types, 993
44.5. The Circulatory System, 994
What Is an Open Circulatory System?, 994
What Is a Closed Circulatory System?, 995
How Does the Heart Work?, 997
Box 44.3. Hypertension and the Measurement of Blood Pressure, 1002
Patterns in Blood Pressure and Blood Flow, 1002
Chapter Review, 1004
45. Electrical Signals in Animals, 1006
45.1. Principles of Electrical Signaling, 1007
The Anatomy of a Neuron, 1007
An Introduction to Membrane Potentials, 1009
How Is the Resting Potential Maintained?, 1009
Using Microelectrodes to Measure Membrane Potentials, 1010
Box 45.1. Using the Nernst and Goldman Equations, 1011
What Is an Action Potential?, 1012
45.2. Dissecting the Action Potential, 1013
Distinct Ion Currents Are Responsible for Depolarization and Repolarization, 1013
How Do Voltage-Gated Channels Work?, 1013
How Is the Action Potential Propagated?, 1016
45.3. The Synapse, 1018
What Do Neurotransmitters Do?, 1019
Postsynaptic Potentials and Summation, 1020
45.4. The Vertebrate Nervous System, 1022
What Does the Peripheral Nervous System Do?, 1022
How Does Memory Work?, 1025
Chapter Review, 1027
46. Animal Sensory Systems and Movement, 1030
46.1. How Do Sensory Organs Convey Information to the Brain?, 1031
Sensory Transduction, 1031
Transmitting Information to the Brain, 1032
46.2. Hearing, 1032
How Do Sensory Cells Respond to Sound Waves and Other Forms of Pressure?, 1033
Box 46.1. Senses That Humans Don’t Have, 1034
The Mammalian Ear, 1034
Sensory Worlds: What Do Other Animals Hear?, 1036
46.3. Vision, 1037
The Vertebrate Eye, 1037
Box 46.2. Vertebrate versus Cephalopod Eyes, 1038
Sensory Worlds: Do Other Animals See Color?, 1041
46.4. Taste and Smell, 1042
Taste: Detecting Molecules in the Mouth, 1043
Olfaction: Detecting Molecules in the Air, 1044
46.5. Movement, 1045
Skeletons, 1045
How Do Muscles Contract?, 1046
Chapter Review, 1052
47. Chemical Signals in Animals, 1054
47.1. Cell-to-Cell Signaling: An Overview, 1055
Hormone Signaling Pathways, 1056
What Are the Components of the Endocrine System?, 1057
Chemical Characteristics of Hormones, 1058
How Do Researchers Identify a Hormone?, 1059
47.2. What Do Hormones Do?, 1060
How Do Hormones Coordinate Responses to Environmental Change?, 1060
Box 47.1. A Closer Look at Thyroxine and the Thyroid Gland, 1062
How Do Hormones Direct Developmental Processes?, 1062
How Are Hormones Involved in Homeostasis?, 1064
Box 47.2. Is Human Obesity Caused by Leptin Deficiency?, 1067
47.3. How Is the Production of Hormones Regulated?, 1068
The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland, 1068
Control of Epinephrine by Sympathetic Nerves, 1071
47.4. How Do Hormones Act on Target Cells?, 1072
Steroid Hormones and Intracellular Receptors, 1072
Hormones That Bind to Cell-Surface Receptors, 1074
Chapter Review, 1076
48. Animal Reproduction, 1079
48.1. Asexual and Sexual Reproduction, 1080
How Does Asexual Reproduction Occur?, 1080
Switching Reproductive Modes: A Case History, 1080
Mechanism of Sexual Reproduction: Gametogenesis, 1082
48.2. Fertilization and Egg Development, 1083
External Fertilization, 1083
Internal Fertilization and Sperm Competition, 1083
Why Do Some Females Lay Eggs while Others Give Birth?, 1085
48.3. Reproductive Structures and Their Functions, 1086
The Male Reproductive System, 1086
The Female Reproductive System, 1088
Box 48.1. Unusual Aspects of Fertilization, 1090
48.4. The Role of Sex Hormones in Mammalian Reproduction, 1090
Which Hormones Control Puberty in Mammals?, 1091
Box 48.2. Abuse of Synthetic Steriods, 1092
Which Hormones Control the Menstrual Cycle in Mammals?, 1092
48.5. Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals, 1096
Major Events during Pregnancy, 1097
Box 48.3. How Do Gestation and Early Development Occur in Marsupials?, 1097
How Does the Mother Nourish the Fetus?, 1099
Birth, 1100
Chapter Review, 1101
49. The Immune System in Animals, 1104
49.1. Innate Immunity, 1105
Barriers to Entry, 1105
The Innate Immune Response, 1106
49.2. The Acquired Immune Response: Recognition, 1108
An Introduction to Lymphocytes and the Immune System, 1109
The Discovery of B Cells and T Cells, 1110
Antigen Recognition and Clonal Selection, 1110
How Does the Immune System Distinguish Self from Nonself?, 1114
49.3. The Acquired Immune Response: Activation, 1116
Antigen Presentation of MHC Proteins: Activating T Cells, 1116
B-Cell Activation and Antibody Secretion, 1118
49.4. The Acquired Immune Response: Culmination, 1119
How Are Bacteria and Other Foreign Cells Killed?, 1119
How Are Viruses Destroyed?, 1120
Why Does the Immune System Reject Foreign Tissues and Organs?, 1120
Responding to Future Infections: Immunological Memory, 1121
Box 49.1. The ELISA Test, 1122
Chapter Review, 1123
Unit 9. Ecology, 1125
50. An Introduction to Ecology, 1125
50.1. Areas of Ecological Study, 1126
Organismal Ecology, 1126
Population Ecology, 1126
Community Ecology, 1127
Ecosystem Ecology, 1127
How Do Ecology and Conservation Efforts Interact?, 1127
50.2. Types of Aquatic Ecosystems, 1127
What Physical Factors Play a Key Role in Aquatic Ecosystems?, 1128
Freshwater Environments > Lakes and ponds, 1128
Box 50.1. Thermoclines and Lake Turnover, 1129
Freshwater Environments > Wetlands, 1130
Freshwater Environments > Streams, 1130
Freshwater/Marine Environments > Estuaries, 1131
Marine Environments > The Ocean, 1132
50.3. Types of Terrestrial Ecosystems, 1133
Terrestrial Biomes > Tropical wet forest, 1134
Terrestrial Biomes > Subtropical deserts, 1135
Terrestrial Biomes > Temperate grasslands, 1137
Terrestrial Biomes > Temperate forests, 1137
Terrestrial Biomes > Boreal forests, 1137
Terrestrial Biomes > Arctic tundra, 1138
50.4. The Role of Climate and the Consequences of Climate Change, 1139
Global Patterns in Climate, 1139
How Will Global Warming Affect Ecosystems?, 1142
50.5. Biogeography: Why Are Organisms Found Where They Are?, 1143
The Role of History, 1144
Biotic Factors, 1144
Abiotic Factors, 1145
Chapter Review, 1147
51. Behavior, 1149
51.1. Types of Behavior: An Overview, 1150
Innate Behavior, 1151
Box 51.1. A Closer Look at Behavior Genetics, 1151
Conditional Strategies and Decision Making, 1152
51.2. Learning, 1155
Simple Types of Learning: Classical Conditioning and Imprinting, 1155
More Complex Types of Learning: Birdsong, 1155
Can Animals Think?, 1156
What Is the Adaptive Significance of Learning?, 1158
51.3. How Animals Act: Hormonal and Neural Control, 1159
Sexual Activity in Anolis Lizards, 1159
Escape Behavior in Noctuid Moths, 1160
51.4. Communication, 1161
Modes of Communication, 1161
A Case History: The Honeybee Dance, 1163
When Is Communication Honest or Deceitful?, 1164
51.5. Migration and Navigation, 1166
Why Do Animals Move with a Change of Seasons?, 1166
How Do Animals Find Their Way?, 1167
51.6. The Evolution of Self-Sacrificing Behavior, 1167
Kin Selection, 1168
Box 51.2. Calculating the Coefficient of Relatedness, 1169
Reciprocal Altruism, 1170
Chapter Review, 1171
52. Population Ecology, 1173
52.1. Demography, 1174
Life Tables, 1174
Box 52.1. Using Life Tables to Calculate Population Growth Rates, 1176
The Role of Life History, 1176
52.2. Population Growth, 1177
Exponential Growth, 1178
Logistic Growth, 1178
Box 52.2. Developing and Applying Population Growth Equations: A Closer Look, 1179
What Limits Growth Rates and Population Sizes?, 1181
52.3. Population Dynamics, 1182
How Do Metapopulations Change through Time?, 1183
Why Do Some Populations Cycle?, 1184
How Does Age Structure Affect Population Growth?, 1186
Box 52.3. Mark-Recapture Studies, 1188
Analyzing Change in the Growth Rate of Human Populations, 1188
52.4. How Can Population Ecology Help Endangered Species?, 1190
Using Life-Table Data to Make Population Projections, 1190
Preserving Metapopulations, 1192
Population Viability Analysis, 1192
Chapter Review, 1193
53. Community Ecology, 1196
53.1. Species Interactions, 1196
Competition, 1197
Consumption, 1202
Mutualism, 1207
53.2. Community Structure, 1209
How Predictable Are Communities?, 1210
How Do Keystone Species Structure Communities?, 1211
53.3. Community Dynamics, 1212
Disturbance and Change in Ecological Communities, 1212
Succession: The Development of Communities after Disturbance, 1213
53.4. Species Richness in Ecological Communities, 1217
Predicting Species Richness: The Theory of Island Biogeography, 1217
Box 53.1. Measuring Species Diversity, 1218
Global Patterns in Species Richness, 1218
Chapter Review, 1220
54. Ecosystems, 1222
54.1. Energy Flow and Trophic Structure, 1223
Global Patterns in Productivity, 1223
How Does Energy Flow through an Ecosystem?, 1226
Analyzing Energy Flow: A Case History, 1229
54.2. Biogeochemical Cycles, 1230
Biogeochemical Cycles in Ecosystems, 1231
Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 1234
Box 54.1. What Is Your Ecological “Footprint”?, 1237
54.3. Human Impacts on Ecosystems, 1238
Global Warming, 1238
Productivity Changes, 1240
Chapter Review, 1242
55. Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, 1244
55.1. What Is Biodiversity?, 1245
Biodiversity Can Be Measured and Analyzed at Several Levels, 1245
Box 55.1. Environmental Sequencing: A New Approach to Quantifying Genetic Diversity, 1245
How Many Species Are Living Today?, 1246
55.2. Where Is Biodiversity Highest?, 1248
55.3. Threats to Biodiversity, 1249
Humans Have Affected Biodiversity throughout History, 1250
Current Threats to Biodiversity, 1250
Box 55.2. An Introduction to Conservation Genetics, 1254
How Can Biologists Predict Future Extinction Rates?, 1255
55.4. Preserving Biodiversity, 1256
Why Is Biodiversity Important?, 1256
Box 55.3. Economic Benefits of Biodiversity, 1258
Designing Effective Protected Areas, 1259
Chapter Review, 1260
BioSkills, B-1
Glossary, G-1
Credits, C-1
Index, I-1
The Metric System, EP-1
Summary Tables, T-1

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