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Copyright, ii
About the Authors, iii
Preface to the Student, v
Acknowledgments, xvii
Unit One. Organization of the Body, 1
1. The Human Body: An Orientation, 1
An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology, 2
Topics of Anatomy, 2
Topics of Physiology, 3
Complementarity of Structure and Function, 3
Levels of Structural Organization, 3
Maintaining Life, 4
Necessary Life Functions, 4
Survival Needs, 8
Homeostasis, 8
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms, 9
Homeostatic Imbalance, 11
The Language of Anatomy, 12
Anatomical Position and Directional Terms, 12
Regional Terms, 12
Anatomical Variability, 14
Body Planes and Sections, 15
Body Cavities and Membranes, 15
A Closer Look: Medical Imaging: Illuminating the Body, 20
2. Chemistry Comes Alive, 24
Part 1: Basic Chemistry, 25
Definition of Concepts: Matter and Energy, 25
Matter, 25
Energy, 25
Composition of Matter: Atoms and Elements, 27
Atomic Structure, 27
Identifying Elements, 28
Radioisotopes, 29
How Matter Is Combined: Molecules and Mixtures, 30
Molecules and Compounds, 30
Mixtures, 30
Distinguishing Mixtures from Compounds, 31
Chemical Bonds, 31
The Role of Electrons in Chemical Bonding, 32
Types of Chemical Bonds, 33
Chemical Reactions, 36
Chemical Equations, 36
Patterns of Chemical Reactions, 37
Energy Flow in Chemical Reactions, 38
Reversibility of Chemical Reactions, 39
Factors Influencing the Rate of Chemical Reactions, 39
Part 2: Biochemistry, 40
Inorganic Compounds, 40
Water, 40
Salts, 41
Acids and Bases, 41
Organic Compounds, 43
Carbohydrates, 44
Lipids, 46
Proteins, 48
Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA), 54
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), 57
A Closer Look: DNA Fingerprinting: Cracking Our Genetic “Barcode”, 58
3. Cells: The Living Units, 64
Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life, 65
The Plasma Membrane: Structure, 66
The Fluid Mosaic Model, 67
Specializations of the Plasma Membrane, 69
The Plasma Membrane: Functions, 70
Membrane Transport, 70
Generating and Maintaining a Resting Membrane Potential, 81
Cell-Environment Interactions, 83
The Cytoplasm, 84
Cytoplasmic Organelles, 84
Cellular Extensions, 95
The Nucleus, 95
The Nuclear Envelope, 97
Nucleoli, 97
Chromatin, 97
Cell Growth and Reproduction, 97
The Cell Life Cycle, 97
Protein Synthesis, 101
Other Roles of DNA, 109
Cytosolic Protein Degradation, 110
Extracellular Materials, 111
Developmental Aspects of Cells, 111
4. Tissue: The Living Fabric, 117
Preparing Human Tissue for Microscopy, 118
Epithelial Tissue, 118
Special Characteristics of Epithelium, 118
Classification of Epithelia, 119
Glandular Epithelia, 124
Connective Tissue, 126
Common Characteristics of Connective Tissue, 127
Structural Elements of Connective Tissue, 127
Types of Connective Tissue, 131
Nervous Tissue, 139
Muscle Tissue, 139
Covering and Lining Membranes, 141
Cutaneous Membrane, 141
Mucous Membranes, 141
Serous Membranes, 142
Tissue Repair, 143
Steps of Tissue Repair, 143
Regenerative Capacity of Different Tissues, 143
Developmental Aspects of Tissues, 145
A Closer Look: Cancer—The Intimate Enemy, 146
Unit Two. Covering, Support, and Movement of the Body, 151
5. The Integumentary System, 151
The Skin, 152
Epidermis, 152
Dermis, 155
A Closer Look: Wrinkle Wrinkle Go Away—Or I’ll Shoot You (with Botox), 156
Skin Color, 157
Appendages of the Skin, 158
Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands, 158
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands, 159
Hairs and Hair Follicles, 159
Nails, 163
Functions of the Integumentary System, 163
Protection, 163
Body Temperature Regulation, 164
Cutaneous Sensation, 164
Metabolic Functions, 165
Blood Reservoir, 165
Excretion, 165
Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin, 165
Skin Cancer, 165
Burns, 166
Making Connections, 168
Developmental Aspects of the Integumentary System, 170
6. Bones and Skeletal Tissues, 175
Skeletal Cartilages, 176
Basic Structure, Types, and Locations, 176
Growth of Cartilage, 176
Classification of Bones, 176
Functions of Bones, 178
Bone Structure, 179
Gross Anatomy, 179
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone, 181
Chemical Composition of Bone, 182
Bone Development, 184
Formation of the Bony Skeleton, 184
Postnatal Bone Growth, 186
Bone Homeostasis: Remodeling and Repair, 187
Bone Remodeling, 188
Bone Repair, 190
Homeostatic Imbalances of Bone, 193
Osteomalacia and Rickets, 193
Osteoporosis, 193
A Closer Look: Them Bones, Them Bones Goin’ to Walk Around—Clinical Advances in Bone Repair, 194
Paget’s Disease, 195
Making Connections, 196
Developmental Aspects of Bones: Timing of Events, 198
7. The Skeleton, 202
Part 1: The Axial Skeleton, 203
The Skull, 203
Overview of Skull Geography, 203
Cranium, 203
Facial Bones, 211
Special Characteristics of the Orbits and Nasal Cavity, 213
Paranasal Sinuses, 214
The Hyoid Bone, 218
The Vertebral Column, 218
General Characteristics, 218
General Structure of Vertebrae, 221
Regional Vertebral Characteristics, 221
The Thoracic Cage, 226
Sternum, 226
Ribs, 227
Part 2: The Appendicular Skeleton, 227
The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle, 227
Clavicles, 228
Scapulae, 229
The Upper Limb, 231
Arm, 231
Forearm, 232
Hand, 233
The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle, 237
Ilium, 237
Ischium, 237
Pubis, 239
Pelvic Structure and Childbearing, 239
The Lower Limb, 239
Thigh, 239
Leg, 242
Foot, 244
Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton, 246
8. Joints, 252
Classification of Joints, 253
Fibrous Joints, 253
Sutures, 253
Syndesmoses, 253
Gomphoses, 254
Cartilaginous Joints, 255
Synchondroses, 255
Symphyses, 255
Synovial Joints, 255
General Structure, 255
Bursae and Tendon Sheaths, 257
Factors Influencing the Stability of Synovial Joints, 257
Movements Allowed by Synovial Joints, 259
Types of Synovial Joints, 263
Selected Synovial Joints, 265
Homeostatic Imbalances of Joints, 272
Common Joint Injuries, 272
Inflammatory and Degenerative Conditions, 273
A Closer Look: Joints: From Knights in Shining Armor to Bionic Humans, 275
Developmental Aspects of Joints, 276
9. Muscles and Muscle Tissue, 279
Overview of Muscle Tissues, 280
Types of Muscle Tissue, 280
Functional Characteristics of Muscle Tissue, 280
Muscle Functions, 280
Skeletal Muscle, 281
Gross Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle, 281
Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber, 284
Sliding Filament Model of Contraction, 287
Physiology of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber, 288
Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle, 295
Muscle Metabolism, 300
Force of Muscle Contraction, 304
Velocity and Duration of Contraction, 305
Effect of Exercise on Muscles, 307
A Closer Look: Athletes Looking Good and Doing Better with Anabolic Steroids?, 308
Smooth Muscle, 309
Microscopic Structure of Smooth Muscle Fibers, 309
Contraction of Smooth Muscle, 311
Types of Smooth Muscle, 316
Developmental Aspects of Muscles, 316
Making Connections, 318
10. The Muscular System, 324
Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body, 325
Naming Skeletal Muscles, 325
Muscle Mechanics: Importance of Fascicle Arrangement and Leverage, 326
Arrangement of Fascicles, 326
Lever Systems: Bone-Muscle Relationships, 326
Major Skeletal Muscles of the Body, 330
Table 10.1 Muscles of the Head, Part I: Facial Expression, 335
Table 10.2 Muscles of the Head, Part II: Mastication and Tongue Movement, 338
Table 10.3 Muscles of the Anterior Neck and Throat: Swallowing, 340
Table 10.4 Muscles of the Neck and Vertebral Column: Head and Trunk Movements, 342
Table 10.5 Muscles of the Thorax: Breathing, 346
Table 10.6 Muscles of the Abdominal Wall: Trunk Movements and Compression of Abdominal Viscera, 348
Table 10.7 Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum: Support of Abdominopelvic Organs, 350
Table 10.8 Superficial Muscles of the Anterior and Posterior Thorax: Movements of the Scapula, 352
Table 10.9 Muscles Crossing the Shoulder Joint: Movements of the Arm, 354
Table 10.10 Muscles Crossing the Elbow Joint: Flexion and Extension of the Forearm, 357
Table 10.11 Muscles of the Forearm: Movements of the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers, 358
Table 10.12 Summary of the Actions of Muscles Acting on the Arm, Forearm, and Hand, 362
Table 10.13 Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand: Fine Movements of the Fingers, 364
Table 10.14 Muscles Crossing the Hip and Knee Joints: Movements of the Thigh and Leg, 367
Table 10.15 Muscles of the Leg: Movements of the Ankle and Toes, 373
Table 10.16 Summary of Actions of Muscles Acting on the Thigh, Leg, and Foot, 379
Table 10.17 Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot: Toe Movement and Arch Support, 381
Unit Three. Regulation and Integration of the Body, 387
11. Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue, 387
Organization of the Nervous System, 388
Histology of Nervous Tissue, 389
Neuroglia, 389
Neurons, 391
Neurophysiology, 397
Basic Principles of Electricity, 397
The Resting Membrane Potential, 399
Membrane Potentials That Act as Signals, 400
The Synapse, 408
Postsynaptic Potentials and Synaptic Integration, 411
Neurotransmitters and Their Receptors, 413
Basic Concepts of Neural Integration, 421
Organization of Neurons: Neuronal Pools, 421
Types of Circuits, 421
Patterns of Neural Processing, 422
Developmental Aspects of Neurons, 423
A Closer Look: Pleasure Me, Pleasure Me!, 424
12. The Central Nervous System, 430
The Brain, 431
Embryonic Development, 431
Regions and Organization, 433
Ventricles, 433
Cerebral Hemispheres, 434
Diencephalon, 443
Brain Stem, 447
Cerebellum, 451
Functional Brain Systems, 454
Higher Mental Functions, 456
Brain Wave Patterns and the EEG, 456
Consciousness, 457
Sleep and Sleep-Wake Cycles, 458
Language, 460
Memory, 460
Protection of the Brain, 463
Meninges, 463
Cerebrospinal Fluid, 465
Blood-Brain Barrier, 467
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Brain, 467
The Spinal Cord, 470
Embryonic Development, 470
Gross Anatomy and Protection, 470
Cross-Sectional Anatomy, 472
Spinal Cord Trauma and Disorders, 478
Diagnostic Procedures for Assessing CNS Dysfunction, 481
Developmental Aspects of the Central Nervous System, 481
A Closer Look: How Now Mad Cow, 482
13. The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity, 490
Part 1: Sensory Receptors and Sensation, 491
Sensory Receptors, 491
Classification by Stimulus Type, 491
Classification by Location, 491
Classification by Structural Complexity, 492
Overview: From Sensation to Perception, 494
General Organization of the Somatosensory System, 494
A Closer Look: Pain: Sound the Alarm, But Pain Me Not!, 496
Part 2: Transmission Lines: Nerves and Their Structure and Repair, 498
Nerves and Associated Ganglia, 498
Structure and Classification, 498
Regeneration of Nerve Fibers, 499
Cranial Nerves, 500
Spinal Nerves, 508
General Features, 508
Innervation of Specific Body Regions, 509
Part 3: Motor Endings and Motor Activity, 519
Peripheral Motor Endings, 519
Innervation of Skeletal Muscle, 519
Innervation of Visceral Muscle and Glands, 519
Overview of Motor Integration: From Intention to Effect, 519
Levels of Motor Control, 519
Part 4: Reflex Activity, 521
The Reflex Arc, 521
Components of a Reflex Arc, 521
Spinal Reflexes, 522
Stretch and Golgi Tendon Reflexes, 522
The Flexor and Crossed-Extensor Reflexes, 525
Superficial Reflexes, 526
Developmental Aspects of the Peripheral Nervous System, 527
14. The Autonomic Nervous System, 532
Introduction, 533
Comparison of the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems, 533
ANS Divisions, 535
ANS Anatomy, 535
Parasympathetic (Craniosacral) Division, 536
Sympathetic (Thoracolumbar) Division, 538
Visceral Reflexes, 542
ANS Physiology, 543
Neurotransmitters and Receptors, 543
The Effects of Drugs, 543
Interactions of the Autonomic Divisions, 544
Control of Autonomic Functioning, 547
Making Connections, 548
Homeostatic Imbalances of the ANS, 550
Developmental Aspects of the ANS, 551
15. The Special Senses, 555
The Eye and Vision, 556
Accessory Structures of the Eye, 556
Structure of the Eyeball, 559
Physiology of Vision, 565
The Chemical Senses: Taste and Smell, 578
The Olfactory Epithelium and the Sense of Smell, 578
Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste, 580
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Chemical Senses, 583
The Ear: Hearing and Balance, 583
Structure of the Ear, 583
Physiology of Hearing, 587
Homeostatic Imbalances of Hearing, 593
Mechanisms of Equilibrium and Orientation, 594
Developmental Aspects of the Special Senses, 598
Taste and Smell, 598
Vision, 598
Hearing and Balance, 599
16. The Endocrine System, 604
The Endocrine System: An Overview, 605
Hormones, 606
The Chemistry of Hormones, 606
Mechanisms of Hormone Action, 606
Target Cell Specificity, 610
Half-Life, Onset, and Duration of Hormone Activity, 610
Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells, 611
Control of Hormone Release, 611
Major Endocrine Organs, 612
The Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis), 612
The Thyroid Gland, 620
The Parathyroid Glands, 624
The Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands, 626
The Pancreas, 632
The Gonads, 634
The Pineal Gland, 635
The Thymus, 636
Other Hormone-Producing Structures, 636
A Closer Look: Sweet Revenge: Can Biotechnology Tame the DM Monster?, 636
Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System, 639
Making Connections, 640
Unit Four. Maintenance of the Body, 646
17. Blood, 646
Overview: Blood Composition and Functions, 647
Components, 647
Physical Characteristics and Volume, 648
Functions, 648
Blood Plasma, 648
Formed Elements, 649
Erythrocytes, 649
Leukocytes, 656
Platelets, 662
Hemostasis, 663
Vascular Spasms, 663
Platelet Plug Formation, 665
Coagulation, 665
Clot Retraction and Repair, 666
Fibrinolysis, 666
Factors Limiting Clot Growth or Formation, 666
Disorders of Hemostasis, 667
Transfusion and Blood Replacement, 668
Transfusion of Red Blood Cells, 668
Restoring Blood Volume, 671
Diagnostic Blood Tests, 671
A Closer Look: Concocting Blood: Artificial Blood Substitutes, 672
Developmental Aspects of Blood, 672
18. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart, 677
Heart Anatomy, 678
Size, Location, and Orientation, 678
Coverings of the Heart, 678
Layers of the Heart Wall, 678
Chambers and Associated Great Vessels, 680
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart, 684
Coronary Circulation, 685
Heart Valves, 686
Properties of Cardiac Muscle Fibers, 689
Microscopic Anatomy, 689
Mechanism and Events of Contraction, 690
Energy Requirements, 692
Heart Physiology, 692
Electrical Events, 692
Heart Sounds, 697
Mechanical Events: The Cardiac Cycle, 698
Cardiac Output, 700
Developmental Aspects of the Heart, 705
A Closer Look: From “Oh, What a Beautiful Morning” to Heart Boosters, Retreads, and Replacements, 706
19. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels, 713
Part 1: Overview of Blood Vessel Structure and Function, 714
Structure of Blood Vessel Walls, 714
Arterial System, 716
Elastic (Conducting) Arteries, 716
Muscular (Distributing) Arteries, 716
Arterioles, 717
A Closer Look: Atherosclerosis? Get Out the Cardiovascular Drãno, 718
Capillaries, 720
Types of Capillaries, 720
Capillary Beds, 721
Venous System, 722
Venules, 722
Veins, 722
Vascular Anastomoses, 723
Part 2: Physiology of Circulation, 723
Introduction to Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 723
Definition of Terms, 723
Relationship Between Flow, Pressure, and Resistance, 724
Systemic Blood Pressure, 724
Arterial Blood Pressure, 724
Capillary Blood Pressure, 725
Venous Blood Pressure, 725
Maintaining Blood Pressure, 726
Short-Term Mechanisms: Neural Controls, 727
Short-Term Mechanisms: Hormonal Controls, 729
Long-Term Mechanisms: Renal Regulation, 730
Monitoring Circulatory Efficiency, 732
Alterations in Blood Pressure, 732
Blood Flow Through Body Tissues: Tissue Perfusion, 733
Velocity of Blood Flow, 734
Autoregulation: Local Regulation of Blood Flow, 734
Blood Flow in Special Areas, 736
Blood Flow Through Capillaries and Capillary Dynamics, 738
Circulatory Shock, 740
Part 3: Circulatory Pathways: Blood Vessels of the Body, 742
The Two Main Circulations of the Body, 742
Systemic Arteries and Veins: Differences in Pathways and Courses, 742
Principal Vessels of the Systemic Circulation, 742
Developmental Aspects of the Blood Vessels, 743
Table 19.3 Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations, 744
Table 19.4 The Aorta and Major Arteries of the Systemic Circulation, 746
Table 19.5 Arteries of the Head and Neck, 748
Table 19.6 Arteries of the Upper Limbs and Thorax, 750
Table 19.7 Arteries of the Abdomen, 752
Table 19.8 Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs, 756
Table 19.9 The Venae Cavae and the Major Veins of the Systemic Circulation, 758
Table 19.10 Veins of the Head and Neck, 760
Table 19.11 Veins of the Upper Limbs and Thorax, 762
Table 19.12 Veins of the Abdomen, 764
Table 19.13 Veins of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs, 766
Making Connections, 768
20. The Lymphatic System, 773
Lymphatic Vessels, 774
Distribution and Structure of Lymphatic Vessels, 774
Lymph Transport, 775
Lymphoid Cells and Tissues, 777
Lymphoid Cells, 777
Lymphoid Tissue, 777
Lymph Nodes, 778
Structure of a Lymph Node, 778
Circulation in the Lymph Nodes, 779
Other Lymphoid Organs, 779
Spleen, 779
Thymus, 781
Tonsils, 781
Aggregates of Lymphoid Follicles, 782
Developmental Aspects of the Lymphatic System, 783
Making Connections, 784
21. The Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Body Defenses, 788
Part 1: Innate Defenses, 789
Surface Barriers: Skin and Mucosae, 789
Internal Defenses: Cells and Chemicals, 790
Phagocytes, 790
Natural Killer Cells, 791
Inflammation: Tissue Response to Injury, 791
Antimicrobial Proteins, 795
Fever, 798
Part 2: Adaptive Defenses, 798
Antigens, 799
Complete Antigens and Haptens, 799
Antigenic Determinants, 799
Self-Antigens: MHC Proteins, 800
Cells of the Adaptive Immune System: An Overview, 800
Lymphocytes, 800
Antigen-Presenting Cells, 803
Humoral Immune Response, 804
Clonal Selection and Differentiation of B Cells, 804
Immunological Memory, 805
Active and Passive Humoral Immunity, 805
Antibodies, 806
Cell-Mediated Immune Response, 810
Clonal Selection and Differentiation of T Cells, 810
Specific T Cell Roles, 814
Organ Transplants and Prevention of Rejection, 818
Homeostatic Imbalances of Immunity, 820
Immunodeficiencies, 820
Autoimmune Diseases, 821
Hypersensitivities, 822
A Closer Look: Too Clean for Our Own Good?, 824
Developmental Aspects of the Immune System, 825
22. The Respiratory System, 830
Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory System, 831
The Nose and Paranasal Sinuses, 831
The Pharynx, 835
The Larynx, 835
The Trachea, 838
The Bronchi and Subdivisions: The Bronchial Tree, 840
The Lungs and Pleurae, 842
Mechanics of Breathing, 846
Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity, 846
Pulmonary Ventilation: Inspiration and Expiration, 847
Physical Factors Influencing Pulmonary Ventilation, 849
Respiratory Volumes and Pulmonary Function Tests, 851
Nonrespiratory Air Movements, 854
Gas Exchanges Between the Blood, Lungs, and Tissues, 854
Basic Properties of Gases, 854
Composition of Alveolar Gas, 855
External Respiration: Pulmonary Gas Exchange, 855
Internal Respiration: Capillary Gas Exchange in the Body Tissues, 858
Transport of Respiratory Gases by Blood, 858
Oxygen Transport, 858
Carbon Dioxide Transport, 861
Control of Respiration, 863
Neural Mechanisms and Generation of Breathing Rhythm, 863
Factors Influencing Breathing Rate and Depth, 865
A Closer Look: Dangerous Raptures of the Deep, 868
Respiratory Adjustments, 869
Adjustments During Exercise, 869
Adjustments at High Altitude, 870
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Respiratory System, 870
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 871
Asthma, 872
Tuberculosis, 872
Lung Cancer, 872
Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory System, 873
Making Connections, 876
23. The Digestive System, 882
Part 1: Overview of the Digestive System, 883
Digestive Processes, 884
Basic Functional Concepts, 885
Digestive System Organs: Relationship and Structural Plan, 886
Relationship of the Digestive Organs to the Peritoneum, 886
Blood Supply: The Splanchnic Circulation, 887
Histology of the Alimentary Canal, 887
Enteric Nervous System of the Alimentary Canal, 888
Part 2: Functional Anatomy of the Digestive System, 889
The Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus, 889
The Mouth and Associated Organs, 889
The Pharynx, 895
The Esophagus, 896
Digestive Processes Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus, 897
The Stomach, 899
Gross Anatomy, 899
Microscopic Anatomy, 900
Digestive Processes Occurring in the Stomach, 902
The Small Intestine and Associated Structures, 908
The Small Intestine, 908
The Liver and Gallbladder, 912
The Pancreas, 917
Digestive Processes Occurring in the Small Intestine, 919
The Large Intestine, 922
Gross Anatomy, 922
Microscopic Anatomy, 923
Bacterial Flora, 925
Digestive Processes Occurring in the Large Intestine, 925
Part 3: Physiology of Chemical Digestion and Absorption, 927
Chemical Digestion, 927
Mechanism of Chemical Digestion: Enzymatic Hydrolysis, 927
Chemical Digestion of Specific Food Groups, 927
Absorption, 931
Absorption of Specific Nutrients, 931
Malabsorption of Nutrients, 933
Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System, 933
Making Connections, 934
24. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body Temperature Regulation, 942
Nutrition, 943
Carbohydrates, 944
Lipids, 944
Proteins, 946
Vitamins, 947
Minerals, 952
Metabolism, 956
Overview, 956
Carbohydrate Metabolism, 959
Lipid Metabolism, 967
Protein Metabolism, 970
Catabolic-Anabolic Steady State of the Body, 971
Absorptive and Postabsorptive States, 973
The Metabolic Role of the Liver, 978
Energy Balance, 981
Regulation of Food Intake, 982
Metabolic Rate and Heat Production, 984
Regulation of Body Temperature, 985
Developmental Aspects of Nutrition and Metabolism, 989
A Closer Look: Obesity: Magical Solution Wanted, 990
25. The Urinary System, 997
Kidney Anatomy, 998
Location and External Anatomy, 998
Internal Anatomy, 999
Blood and Nerve Supply, 1001
Nephrons, 1001
Kidney Physiology: Mechanisms of Urine Formation, 1007
Step 1: Glomerular Filtration, 1007
Step 2: Tubular Reabsorption, 1011
Step 3: Tubular Secretion, 1015
Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume, 1015
Renal Clearance, 1021
Urine, 1021
Physical Characteristics, 1021
Chemical Composition, 1022
A Closer Look: Chronic Renal Disease: A National Health Crisis in the Making, 1022
Ureters, 1023
Urinary Bladder, 1024
Urethra, 1026
Micturition, 1027
Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System, 1027
26. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, 1035
Body Fluids, 1036
Body Water Content, 1036
Fluid Compartments, 1036
Composition of Body Fluids, 1036
Fluid Movement Among Compartments, 1037
Water Balance and ECF Osmolality, 1039
Regulation of Water Intake, 1039
Regulation of Water Output, 1040
Influence of ADH, 1041
Disorders of Water Balance, 1041
Electrolyte Balance, 1043
The Central Role of Sodium in Fluid and Electrolyte Balance, 1043
Regulation of Sodium Balance, 1043
Regulation of Potassium Balance, 1048
Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Balance, 1049
Regulation of Anions, 1049
Acid-Base Balance, 1049
Chemical Buffer Systems, 1050
Respiratory Regulation of H⁺, 1052
Renal Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance, 1052
Abnormalities of Acid-Base Balance, 1055
A Closer Look: Sleuthing: Using Blood Values to Determine the Cause of Acidosis or Alkalosis, 1057
Making Connections, 1058
Developmental Aspects of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, 1060
Unit Five. Continuity, 1065
27. The Reproductive System, 1065
Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System, 1066
The Scrotum, 1067
The Testes, 1067
The Penis, 1069
The Male Duct System, 1069
Accessory Glands, 1071
Semen, 1072
Physiology of the Male Reproductive System, 1072
Male Sexual Response, 1072
Spermatogenesis, 1073
Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function, 1074
A Closer Look: Erectile Dysfunction and Passion Pills, 1074
Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System, 1082
The Ovaries, 1083
The Female Duct System, 1084
The External Genitalia, 1088
The Mammary Glands, 1089
Physiology of the Female Reproductive System, 1091
Oogenesis, 1091
The Ovarian Cycle, 1093
Hormonal Regulation of the Ovarian Cycle, 1094
The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle, 1096
Extrauterine Effects of Estrogens and Progesterone, 1098
Female Sexual Response, 1098
Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 1100
Gonorrhea, 1100
Syphilis, 1100
Chlamydia, 1100
Trichomoniasis, 1101
Genital Warts, 1101
Genital Herpes, 1101
Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System: Chronology of Sexual Development, 1101
Embryological and Fetal Events, 1101
Puberty, 1104
Menopause, 1105
Making Connections, 1106
28. Pregnancy and Human Development, 1113
From Egg to Zygote, 1114
Accomplishing Fertilization, 1114
Events of Embryonic Development: Zygote to Blastocyst Implantation, 1117
Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation, 1117
Implantation, 1119
Placentation, 1120
Events of Embryonic Development: Gastrula to Fetus, 1122
Formation and Roles of the Extraembryonic Membranes, 1122
Gastrulation: Germ Layer Formation, 1123
Organogenesis: Differentiation of the Germ Layers, 1123
A Closer Look: Contraception: To Be or Not to Be, 1128
Events of Fetal Development, 1133
Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother, 1133
Anatomical Changes, 1133
Metabolic Changes, 1134
Physiological Changes, 1135
Parturition (Birth), 1135
Initiation of Labor, 1135
Stages of Labor, 1137
Adjustments of the Infant to Extrauterine Life, 1137
Taking the First Breath and Transition, 1137
Occlusion of Special Fetal Blood Vessels and Vascular Shunts, 1138
Lactation, 1138
Assisted Reproductive Technology and Reproductive Cloning, 1139
29. Heredity, 1145
The Vocabulary of Genetics, 1146
Gene Pairs (Alleles), 1146
Genotype and Phenotype, 1147
Sexual Sources of Genetic Variation, 1147
Chromosome Segregation and Independent Assortment, 1147
Crossover of Homologues and Gene Recombination, 1148
Random Fertilization, 1149
Types of Inheritance, 1149
Dominant-Recessive Inheritance, 1149
Incomplete Dominance, 1151
Multiple-Allele Inheritance, 1151
Sex-Linked Inheritance, 1152
Polygene Inheritance, 1152
Environmental Factors in Gene Expression, 1152
Nontraditional Inheritance, 1153
Beyond DNA: Regulation of Gene Expression, 1153
Extranuclear (Mitochondrial) Inheritance, 1154
Genetic Screening, Counseling, and Therapy, 1154
Carrier Recognition, 1155
Fetal Testing, 1155
Human Gene Therapy, 1157
Appendices, A-1
A. The Metric System, A-1
B. Functional Groups in Organic Molecules, A-3
C. The Amino Acids, A-4
D. Two Important Metabolic Pathways, A-5
E. Periodic Table of the Elements, A-8
F. Reference Values for Selected Blood and Urine Studies, A-9
G. Answers to Clinical Connections, Multiple Choice, and Matching Questions, A-14
Glossary, G-1
Photo and Illustration Credits, C-1
Index, I-1
Endpaper, EP-1

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