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Copyright, ii
Acknowledgments, iv
About the Authors, v
To the Student, xvii
To the Instructor, xviii
About Science, 1
1. About Science, 1
1.1. A Brief History of Advances in Science, 2
1.2. Mathematics and Conceptual Physical Science, 3
1.3. Scientific Methods—Classic Tools, 3
1.4. Scientific Hypotheses Must Be Testable, 4
1.5. A Scientific Attitude Underlies Good Science, 6
Pseudoscience, 7
1.6. The Search for Order—Science, Art, and Religion, 8
1.7. Technology—Practical Use of the Findings of Science, 9
Risk Assessment, 10
1.8. The Physical Sciences: Physics, Chemistry, Earth Science, and Astronomy, 10
1.9. In Perspective, 11
Part One. Mechanics, 15
2. Newton’s First Law of Motion—the Law of Inertia, 17
People in History: Aristotle (384–322 BC), 18
2.1. Aristotle’s Classification of Motion, 18
2.2. Galileo’s Concept of Inertia, 18
People in History: Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), 20
2.3. Galileo’s Concepts of Speed and Velocity, 20
Speed, 20
Velocity, 21
2.4. Motion Is Relative, 22
2.5. Newton’s First Law of Motion—The Law of Inertia, 22
People in History: Isaac Newton (1642–1727), 23
2.6. Net Force—The Combination of All Forces That Act on an Object, 25
2.7. Equilibrium for Objects at Rest, 26
Paul Hewitt—Personal Essay, 27
2.8. The Support Force—Why We Don’t Fall Through the Floor, 28
2.9. Equilibrium for Moving Objects, 29
2.10. Earth Moves Around the Sun, 30
3. Newton’s Second Law of Motion—Force and Acceleration, 37
3.1. Galileo Developed the Concept of Acceleration, 38
3.2. Force Causes Acceleration, 40
3.3. Mass Is a Measure of Inertia, 41
Mass Is Not Volume, 41
Mass Is Not Weight, 41
1 Kilogram Weighs 10 Newtons, 43
3.4. Mass Resists Acceleration, 43
3.5. Newton’s Second Law Links Force, Acceleration, and Mass, 44
Calculation Corner, 45
3.6. Friction Is a Force That Affects Motion, 45
Practicing Physical Science, 46
3.7. Objects in Free Fall Have Equal Acceleration, 47
3.8. Newton’s Second Law Explains Why Objects in Free Fall Have Equal Acceleration, 48
Calculation Corner, 49
3.9. Acceleration of Fall Is Less When Air Drag Acts, 49
4. Newton’s Third Law of Motion—Action and Reaction, 57
4.1. A Force Is Part of an Interaction, 58
4.2. Newton’s Third Law—Action and Reaction, 59
Hands-On Exploration, 60
4.3. A Simple Rule Helps Identify Action and Reaction, 60
Calculation Corner, 61
4.4. Action and Reaction on Objects of Different Masses, 62
4.5. Action and Reaction Forces Act on Different Objects, 63
4.6. The Classic Horse-Cart Problem—A Mind Stumper, 64
4.7. Action Equals Reaction, 66
Hands-and-Feet-on Exploration, 67
4.8. Summary of Newton’s Three Laws, 69
5. Momentum, 74
5.1. Momentum Is Inertia in Motion, 75
5.2. Impulse Changes Momentum, 75
Case 1: Increasing Momentum—Increase Force, Time, or Both, 76
Case 2: Decreasing Momentum Over a Long Time Means Less Force, 77
Case 3: Decreasing Momentum Over a Short Time Means More Force, 78
5.3. Momentum Change Is Greater When Bouncing Occurs, 79
5.4. When No External Force Acts, Momentum Doesn’t Change—It Is Conserved, 80
Hands-On Exploration: Skateboard Throw, 82
5.5. Momentum Is Conserved in Collisions, 82
Elastic Collisions, 82
Inelastic Collisions, 82
Calculation Corner, 85
6. Energy, 90
6.1. Work—Force × Distance, 91
6.2. Power—How Quickly Work Gets Done, 92
6.3. Mechanical Energy, 93
6.4. Potential Energy Is Stored Energy, 94
6.5. Kinetic Energy Is Energy of Motion, 95
6.6. Work–Energy Theorem, 96
6.7. Conservation of Energy, 98
Calculation Corner, 99
6.8. Machines—Devices to Multiply Forces, 100
Hands-On Exploration, 101
6.9. Efficiency—A Measure of Work Done for Energy Spent, 102
6.10. Sources of Energy, 103
6.11. Energy for Life, 105
Junk Science, 106
7. Gravity, Projectiles, and Satellite Motion, 112
7.1. The Legend of the Falling Apple, 113
7.2. The Fact of the Falling Moon, 113
7.3. Newton’s Grandest Discovery—The Law of Universal Gravitation, 114
7.4. Gravity and Distance: The Inverse-Square Law, 115
7.5. The Universal Gravitational Constant, G, 117
7.6. The Mass of the Earth Is Measured, 118
7.7. Projectile Motion, 119
Hands-On Dangling Beads Exploration, 123
7.8. Fast-Moving Projectiles—Satellites, 124
7.9. Earth Satellites in Circular Orbits, 125
Pretend Corner: A Cannon Shot, 127
Hands-On Exploration: The Water Bucket Swing, 128
7.10. Satellites in Elliptical Orbits, 129
Hands-On Exploration, 130
7.11. Escape Speed—Getting “Out There”, 130
Mechanics Review, 131
7.12. Gravitation Is Universal, 131
8. Fluid Mechanics, 137
8.1. Density—A Measure of Compactness, 138
8.2. Pressure—Force per Area, 140
Pressure in a Liquid, 140
8.3. Buoyancy in a Liquid, 142
8.4. Archimedes’ Principle—Sink or Swim, 143
Flotation, 144
People in History: Archimedes and the Gold Crown, 144
8.5. Pressure in a Gas, 146
Boyle’s Law, 146
Link to Earth Science: Floating Mountains, 146
8.6. Atmospheric Pressure Is Due to the Weight of the Atmosphere, 148
Barometers, 150
8.7. Pascal’s Principle—The Transmission of Pressure in a Fluid, 152
8.8. Buoyancy in a Gas—More Archimedes’ Principle, 154
8.9. Bernoulli’s Principle—Flying with Physics, 155
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle, 156
Part Two. Forms of Energy, 165
9. Heat, 167
9.1. Thermal Energy—The Total Energy in a Substance, 168
9.2. Temperature—Average Kinetic Energy per Molecule in a Substance, 169
9.3. Absolute Zero—Nature’s Lowest Possible Temperature, 170
9.4. Heat Is the Movement of Thermal Energy, 172
We Know What Heat Is—What Is Cold?, 172
Heat Units Are Energy Units, 173
9.5. Specific Heat Capacity—A Measure of Thermal Inertia, 174
9.6. Thermal Expansion, 176
Expansion of Water, 178
9.7. Conduction—Heat Transfer via Particle Collision, 180
9.8. Convection—Heat Transfer via Movements of Fluid, 182
Breath-on Exploration, 183
9.9. Radiation—Heat Transfer via Radiant Energy, 183
Emission of Radiant Energy, 184
Absorption of Radiant Energy, 185
Reflection of Radiant Energy, 186
9.10. Energy Changes with Changes of Phase, 187
10. Electricity, 192
10.1. Electric Charge Is a Basic Characteristic of Matter, 193
Link to Electronics Technology: Electrostatic Charge, 194
10.2. Coulomb’s Law—The Force Between Charged Particles, 195
10.3. Charge Polarization, 196
10.4. Electric Current—The Flow of Electric Charge, 196
10.5. An Electric Current Is Produced by Electrical Pressure—Voltage, 197
10.6. Electrical Resistance, 199
10.7. Ohm’s Law—The Relationship Among Current, Voltage, and Resistance, 200
Link to Technology: Superconductors, 201
10.8. Electric Shock, 201
Link to Safety: Electric Shock, 203
10.9. Direct Current and Alternating Current, 203
10.10. Electric Power—The Rate of Doing Work, 204
Link to History of Technology: 110 Volts, 204
10.11. Electric Circuits—Series and Parallel, 205
Series Circuits, 205
Parallel Circuits, 207
Electrical Energy and Technology, 209
Parallel Circuits and Overloading, 209
11. Magnetism, 216
11.1. Magnetic Poles—Attraction and Repulsion, 217
11.2. Magnetic Fields—Regions of Magnetic Influence, 218
Hands-On Exploration, 219
11.3. Magnetic Domains—Clusters of Aligned Atoms, 220
11.4. The Interaction Between Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields, 221
Electromagnets, 222
Superconducting Electromagnets, 222
11.5. Magnetic Forces Are Exerted on Moving Charges, 223
Magnetic Force on Current-Carrying Wires, 224
Electric Meters, 224
Electric Motors, 225
11.6. Electromagnetic Induction—How Voltage Is Created, 226
Faraday’s Law, 227
11.7. Generators and Alternating Current, 228
11.8. Power Production—A Technological Extension of Electromagnetic Induction, 229
11.9. The Induction of Fields—Both Electric and Magnetic, 230
12. Waves and Sound, 235
12.1. Special Wiggles—Vibrations and Waves, 236
12.2. Wave Motion—Transporting Energy, 237
Wave Speed, 238
12.3. Two Types of Waves—Transverse and Longitudinal, 239
12.4. Sound Travels in Longitudinal Waves, 239
Link to Technology: Loudspeakers, 241
Speed of Sound, 241
12.5. Sound Can Be Reflected, 242
12.6. Sound Can Be Refracted, 242
Link to Zoology: Dolphins and Acoustical Imaging, 244
12.7. Forced Vibrations and Natural Frequency, 244
12.8. Resonance and Sympathetic Vibrations, 245
12.9. Interference—The Addition and Subtraction of Waves, 246
Sound-Off Exploration, 248
Beats—An Effect of Sound Interference, 248
Standing Waves—The Effect of Waves Passing Through Each Other, 249
12.10. The Doppler Effect—Changes in Frequency Due to Motion, 250
12.11. Wave Barriers and Bow Waves, 252
12.12. Shock Waves and the Sonic Boom, 253
13. Light, Reflection, and Color, 260
13.1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum—and the Tiny Bit That Is Light, 261
13.2. Why Materials Are Either Transparent or Opaque, 262
13.3. Reflection of Light, 266
Law of Reflection, 266
Hands-On Explorations: Playing with Mirrors, 268
Diffuse Reflection, 269
13.4. Refraction—The Bending of Light Due to Changing Speed, 270
13.5. Illusions and Mirages Are Caused by Atmospheric Refraction, 272
13.6. Color Science, 273
Selective Reflection, 274
Selective Transmission, 275
13.7. Mixing Colored Lights, 276
Additive Primary Colors—Red, Green, and Blue, 276
Complementary Colors, 277
13.8. Mixing Colored Pigments, 278
13.9. Why the Sky Is Blue, 279
13.10. Why Sunsets Are Red, 281
Shine-On Exploration, 281
13.11. Why Clouds Are White, 282
14. Properties of Light, 287
14.1. Light Dispersion and Rainbows, 288
14.2. Lenses, 291
Hands-On Explorations: Playing around with Lenses, 291
Link to Physiology: Your Eye, 293
Snapshot Explorations: Making a Pinhole Camera, 294
14.3. Image Formation by a Lens, 294
Lens Defects, 297
Link to Optometry, 298
14.4. Diffraction—The Spreading of Light, 298
14.5. Interference—Constructive and Destructive, 300
Link to Optometry: Seeing Star-Shaped Stars, 303
14.6. Interference Colors by Reflection from Thin Films, 303
Hands-On Exploration: Swirling Colors, 304
14.7. Polarization—Evidence for the Transverse Wave Nature of Light, 305
Hands-On Exploration: Interference Colors with Polaroids, 307
14.8. Wave-Particle Duality—Two Sides of the Same Coin, 308
15. The Atom, 315
15.1. Discovering the Invisible Atom, 316
Evidence for Atoms, 317
15.2. Elements and the Periodic Table, 320
15.3. The Atomic Nucleus Consists of Protons and Neutrons, 322
Technology: Nanotechnology, 324
15.4. Isotopes and Atomic Mass, 324
15.5. Electron Shells—Regions About the Nucleus Where Electrons Are Located, 327
16. Nuclear Energy, 334
16.1. Radioactivity—The Disintegration of the Atomic Nucleus, 335
Science and Society: Nuclear Technology, 335
16.2. Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays, 336
16.3. Environmental Radiation, 338
16.4. Transmutation of Elements—Changing Identities, 340
16.5. Half-Life Is a Measure of Radioactive Decay Rate, 342
16.6. Isotopic Dating Measures the Ages of Materials, 343
16.7. Nuclear Fission—The Breaking Apart of Atomic Nuclei, 345
Link to Technology: Nuclear Fission Reactors, 348
16.8. The Mass–Energy Relationship: E = mc², 348
16.9. Nuclear Fusion—The Combining of Atomic Nuclei, 351
Part Three. Chemistry, 357
17. Elements of Chemistry, 359
17.1. Chemistry Is Known as the Central Science, 360
17.2. The Submicroscopic World Is Super-Small, 362
Phases of Matter, 363
17.3. The Phase of Matter Can Change, 364
17.4. Matter Has Physical and Chemical Properties, 365
17.5. Determining Physical and Chemical Changes Can Be Difficult, 369
17.6. The Periodic Table Helps Us to Understand the Elements, 371
Periods and Groups, 373
17.7. Elements Can Combine to Form Compounds, 376
17.8. There Is a System for Naming Compounds, 378
18. How Atoms Bond and Molecules Attract, 384
18.1. Electron-Dot Structures Help Us to Understand Bonding, 385
18.2. Atoms Can Lose or Gain Electrons to Become Ions, 386
18.3. Ionic Bonds Result from a Transfer of Electrons, 389
Minerals, 390
18.4. Metal Atoms Bond by Losing Their Electrons, 392
18.5. Covalent Bonds Result from a Sharing of Electrons, 394
18.6. Electrons May Be Shared Unevenly in a Covalent Bond, 398
18.7. Electrons Are Shared Unevenly in a Polar Molecule, 401
18.8. Molecules Are Attractive, 404
Ions and Dipoles, 405
Dipoles and Dipoles, 406
Dipoles and Induced Dipoles, 406
19. How Chemicals Mix, 412
19.1. Most Materials Are Mixtures, 413
Mixtures Can Be Separated by Physical Means, 415
19.2. The Chemist’s Classification of Matter, 416
19.3. A Solution Is a Single-Phase Homogeneous Mixture, 419
19.4. Concentration Is Given as Moles per Liter, 421
19.5. Solubility Measures How Well a Solute Dissolves, 423
Solubility Changes with Temperature, 425
Solid Solutes Dissolve Quicker When Crushed and Stirred, 425
Solubility of Gases, 426
19.6. Soap Works by Being Both Polar and Nonpolar, 428
19.7. Purifying the Water We Drink, 429
20. How Chemicals React, 437
20.1. Chemical Reactions Are Represented by Chemical Equations, 438
20.2. Chemical Reactions Can Be Slow or Fast, 440
Activation Energy Is the Energy Needed for Reactants to React, 444
20.3. Catalysts Speed Up Chemical Reactions, 445
20.4. Chemical Reactions Can Be Either Exothermic or Endothermic, 449
An Exothermic Reaction Involves a Net Release of Energy, 450
An Endothermic Reaction Involves a Net Absorption of Energy, 453
20.5. Chemical Reactions Are Driven by Entropy, 454
21. Two Types of Chemical Reactions, 460
21.1. Acids Donate and Bases Accept Hydrogen Ions, 461
A Salt Is the Ionic Product of an Acid–Base Reaction, 465
21.2. Some Acids and Bases Are Stronger Than Others, 467
21.3. Solutions Can Be Acidic, Basic, or Neutral, 468
The pH Scale Is Used to Describe Acidity, 470
Logarithms and pH, 471
21.4. Rainwater Is Acidic and Ocean Water Is Basic, 471
21.5. Oxidation Is the Loss of Electrons and Reduction Is the Gain of Electrons, 474
21.6. The Energy of Flowing Electrons Can Be Harnessed, 475
Batteries, 476
Fuel Cells, 479
Electrolysis, 480
21.7. Oxygen Is Responsible for Corrosion and Combustion, 481
21.8. Hydrogen Sulfide Can Induce Suspended Animation, 483
22. Organic Compounds, 490
22.1. Hydrocarbons, 491
22.2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons, 495
22.3. Functional Groups, 498
22.4. Alcohols and Ethers, 500
22.5. Amines and Alkaloids, 502
22.6. Carbonyl Compounds, 504
22.7. Polymers, 507
Addition Polymers, 508
Condensation Polymers, 512
23. The Nutrients of Life, 521
23.1. Biomolecules Are Molecules Produced and Used by Organisms, 522
23.2. Carbohydrates Give Structure and Energy, 523
Polysaccharides Are Complex Carbohydrates, 524
23.3. Lipids Are Insoluble in Water, 526
23.4. Proteins Are Polymers of Amino Acids, 530
23.5. Nucleic Acids Code for Proteins, 533
23.6. Vitamins Are Organic, Minerals Are Inorganic, 535
23.7. Metabolism Is the Cycling of Biomolecules Through the Body, 539
23.8. The Food Pyramid Summarizes a Healthful Diet, 541
Carbohydrates Predominate in Most Foods, 541
Unsaturated Fats Are Generally More Healthful Than Saturated Fats, 545
Our Intake of Essential Amino Acids Should Be Carefully Monitored, 547
24. Medicinal Chemistry, 554
24.1. Medicines Are Drugs That Benefit the Body, 555
24.2. The Lock-and-Key Model Guides Chemists in Creating New Medicines, 556
24.3. Chemotherapy Cures the Host by Killing the Disease, 560
24.4. The Nervous System Is a Network of Neurons, 562
Neurotransmitters Include Norepinephrine, Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Serotonin, and GABA, 564
24.5. Psychoactive Drugs Alter the Mind or Behavior, 566
Stimulants Activate the Stress Neurons, 566
Depressants Inhibit the Ability of Neurons to Conduct Impulses, 570
24.6. Pain Relievers Inhibit the Transmission or Perception of Pain, 573
Part Four. Earth Science, 581
25. Rocks and Minerals, 583
25.1. Our Rocky Planet, 584
25.2. What Is a Mineral?, 586
25.3. Mineral Properties, 587
Crystal Form Expresses the Arrangement of Atoms in a Mineral, 587
Hands-On Exploration: Salt Crystals, 588
Hardness Is the Resistance of a Mineral to Scratching, 588
Cleavage and Fracture Are Ways in Which Minerals Break, 589
Luster Is the Appearance of a Mineral’s Surface in Reflected Light, 590
A Mineral’s Color May Vary, but Its Streak Is Always the Same, 590
Density Is a Ratio of Mass to Volume, 591
25.4. Classification of Rock-Forming Minerals, 592
Silicates Make Up Nearly 90% of Earth’s Crust, 592
Nonsilicates Include the Carbonates, Oxides, and Sulfide Minerals, 593
25.5. The Formation of Minerals and Rock, 594
25.6. Rocks Are Divided into Three Main Groups, 594
25.7. Igneous Rocks Form When Magma Cools, 596
Igneous Rocks at Earth’s Surface, 596
Fissure Eruptions Occur Under Water and on Land, 597
Volcanoes Come in a Variety of Shapes and Sizes, 597
Igneous Rocks Beneath Earth’s Surface, 598
Link to Mythology: Volcanoes, 598
25.8. Sedimentary Rocks Blanket Most of Earth’s Surface, 600
The Formation of Sedimentary Rock, 600
Classifying Sedimentary Rocks, 602
Link to Biology: Fossil Fuels, 605
Fossils: Clues to Life in the Past, 606
25.9. Metamorphic Rocks Are Changed Rocks, 607
Two Kinds of Metamorphism: Contact and Regional, 607
Classifying Metamorphic Rocks, 608
25.10. The Rock Cycle, 610
26. The Architecture of Earth, 616
26.1. Earthquakes Make Seismic Waves, 617
Two Types of Seismic Waves: Body Waves and Surface Waves, 618
26.2. Seismic Waves Reveal Earth’s Internal Layers, 619
The Core Has Two Parts: A Solid Inner Core and a Liquid Outer Core, 620
The Mantle Is Dynamic, 621
The Crust Makes up the Ocean Floor and Continental Land, 623
26.3. Internal Motion Deforms Earth’s Surface, 624
Folded Rock: An Expression of Compressive Force, 625
Faults Are Caused by the Forces of Compression, Tension, or Shearing, 626
Earthquakes—The Result of Sudden Deformation, 627
Earthquake Measurement—Magnitude Scales, 628
Link to Physics: Wave Motion—Tsunami, 630
Where Do Most Earthquakes Occur?, 632
27. Plate Tectonics—A Unifying Theory, 638
27.1. Continental Drift—An Idea Before Its Time, 639
27.2. Search for the Mechanism to Support Continental Drift, 641
Seafloor Spreading—A Scientific Revolution, 643
27.3. The Theory of Plate Tectonics, 645
27.4. Three Types of Plate Boundaries, 646
Hot Spots and GPS—A Measurement of Tectonic Plate Motion, 647
Divergent Plate Boundaries, 647
Calculation Corner: Calculating the Age of the Atlantic Ocean, 648
Convergent Plate Boundaries, 649
Transform Plate Boundaries, 654
Calculation Corner: Moving Faults, 655
27.5. The Theory That Explains Much, 656
28. Shaping Earth’s Surface, 660
28.1. The Hydrologic Cycle, 661
28.2. Groundwater—Water Below the Surface, 662
Calculation Corner: Porosity, 663
The Water Table, 664
Aquifers and Springs, 664
Groundwater Movement, 666
28.3. The Work of Groundwater, 667
Pumping Can Cause Land Subsidence, 667
Some Rocks Are Dissolved by Groundwater—Carbonate Dissolution, 668
28.4. Streams and Rivers—Water at Earth’s Surface, 671
Stream Flow, 671
28.5. The Work of Surface Water, 673
Erosion and Transport of Sediment, 673
Erosional and Depositional Environments, 674
Stream Valleys and Floodplains, 675
Deltas Are the End of the Line for a River, 677
Drainage Basins, 678
28.6. Glaciers and Glaciation—Earth’s Frozen Water, 679
Glacier Formation and Movement, 679
Glacial Mass Balance, 680
28.7. The Work of Glaciers, 681
Glacial Erosion and Erosional Landforms, 682
Glacial Sedimentation and Depositional Landforms, 683
28.8. The Work of Air, 685
29. Geologic Time—Reading the Rock Record, 690
29.1. Relative Dating—The Placement of Rocks in Order, 691
Gaps in the Rock Record, 694
29.2. Radiometric Dating Reveals the Actual Time of Rock Formation, 696
29.3. Geologic Time, 697
29.4. Precambrian Time—A Time of Hidden Life, 699
29.5. The Paleozoic Era—A Time of Life Diversification, 701
The Cambrian Period—An Explosion of Life Forms, 701
The Ordovician Period—The Explosion of Life Continues, 702
The Silurian Period—Life Begins to Emerge on Land, 702
The Devonian Period—The Age of Fishes, 703
The Carboniferous Period—A Time of Great Swampy Forests, 703
The Permian Period—The Beginning of the Age of Reptiles, 704
29.6. The Mesozoic Era—The Age of Reptiles, 705
The Cretaceous Extinction—An Extraterrestrial Calamity, 706
29.7. The Cenozoic Era—The Age of Mammals, 707
Cenozoic Life, 709
Human Geologic Force, 711
29.8. Earth History in a Capsule, 711
30. The Atmosphere, the Oceans, and Their Interactions, 715
30.1. Earth’s Atmosphere and Oceans, 716
Earth’s Oceans Moderate Land Temperatures, 716
Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere and Oceans, 716
30.2. Components of Earth’s Atmosphere, 718
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere, 718
Calculation Corner, 721
30.3. Solar Energy, 721
The Seasons, 722
Terrestrial Radiation, 723
The Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change, 724
30.4. Driving Forces of Air Motion, 725
30.5. Global Atmospheric Circulation Patterns, 728
Upper Atmospheric Circulation, 729
30.6. Components of Earth’s Oceans, 730
Seawater, 731
Vertical Structure of Ocean Water, 732
Link to Physics: Ocean Tides, 733
30.7. Oceanic Circulation, 734
Wind Makes Ocean Waves, 734
Coastal Landforms, 735
Surface Currents, 735
Deep-Water Currents, 737
31. Weather, 741
31.1. Water in the Atmosphere, 742
Calculation Corner: Humidity, 743
31.2. Weather Variables, 744
Adiabatic Processes in Air, 744
Atmospheric Stability, 746
Hands-On-Exploration: Adiabatic Expansion, 747
31.3. There Are Many Different Clouds, 747
High Clouds, 748
Middle Clouds, 748
Low Clouds, 750
Clouds That Have Vertical Development, 750
Precipitation Formation, 750
31.4. Air Masses, Fronts, and Storms, 751
Atmospheric Lifting Creates Clouds, 752
31.5. Weather Can Be Violent, 756
Thunderstorms, 756
Tornadoes, 758
Hurricanes, 759
31.6. The Weather—Number-One Topic of Conversation, 760
Weather Maps, 761
Part Five. Astronomy, 765
32. The Solar System, 767
32.1. The Solar System Is Mostly Empty Space, 768
32.2. Solar Systems Form from Nebula, 769
32.3. The Sun Is Our Prime Source of Energy, 771
32.4. The Inner Planets Are Rocky, 773
Mercury, 773
Venus, 774
Earth, 775
Mars, 775
32.5. The Outer Planets Are Gaseous, 776
Jupiter, 777
Saturn, 778
Uranus, 779
Neptune, 780
32.6. Earth’s Moon, 781
The Phases of the Moon, 782
Why One Side Always Faces Us, 784
Eclipses, 785
32.7. Failed Planet Formation, 788
The Asteroid Belt and Meteors, 788
The Kuiper Belt and Plutoids, 788
The Oort Cloud and Comets, 790
33. Stars, 796
33.1. Observing the Night Sky, 797
33.2. Stars Have Different Brightness and Color, 800
33.3. The Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram Describes Stars, 802
Astrology, 803
33.4. The Life Cycles of Stars, 804
33.5. Novae and Supernovae Are Stellar Explosions, 807
33.6. Supergiant Stars Collapse into Black Holes, 809
Black Hole Geometry, 809
Where Time Stands Still, 811
34. Galaxies and the Cosmos, 816
34.1. A Galaxy Is an Island of Stars, 817
34.2. Elliptical, Spiral, and Irregular Galaxies, 818
34.3. Active Galaxies Emit Huge Amounts of Energy, 821
34.4. Galaxies Form Clusters and Superclusters, 822
34.5. Galaxies Are Moving Away from One Another, 825
34.6. Further Evidence for the Big Bang, 826
34.7. Dark Matter Is Invisible, 828
Dark Matter and Galaxy Formation, 830
34.8. Dark Energy Opposes Gravity, 830
Epilogue, 832
Appendix A. On Measurement and Unit Conversion, 837
Appendix B. Linear and Rotational Motion, 840
Appendix C. Working with Vector Components, 846
Appendix D. Exponential Growth and Doubling Time, 850
Appendix E. Safety, 854
Glossary, 855
Photo Credits, 869
Index, 872
End Papers, EP-1

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