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Copyright, iv
Preface, xvii
About the Authors, xxii
Part I. Planet Earth: Acting and Interacting, 1
Chapter 1. The Changing Planet: Earth as a System, 2
Overview, 3
Introduction, 4
An Introduction to Plate Tectonics, 5
Climate and the Hydrologic Cycle, 9
Climate Dynamics, 11
The Earth as a System, 13
Understanding Earth: The Question of Scale, 15
Focus 1.1. Earth Systems and Connections: Can Plate Tectonics Cause Ice Ages?, 15
Geologic Time: An Important Perspective, 18
The Present Is the Key to the Past, 18
Focus 1.2. A Matter of Perspective: Big and Small Numbers, 18
A Process Approach to Physical Geology, 21
Focus 1.3. The Philosophy of Science, 22
Summary, 23
Key Terms, 23
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 23
Chapter 2. Earth: Origin and Composition, 24
Overview, 25
Introduction, 26
The Composition of the Universe, 26
Focus 2.1. A Chemistry Refresher: Atoms and Molecules, 27
The Building Blocks of the Universe, 29
Formation of the Elements, 29
Focus 2.2. The Doppler Shift: Evidence for the Expanding Universe and Other Solar Systems, 30
Our Solar System, 32
Composition of the Solar System, 32
The Age and Origin of the Solar System, 33
The Planets, 34
Comets, 35
Asteroids and Meteorites, 36
Focus 2.3. Impacts and Their Effects on Earth, 37
The Planet Earth, 38
Determining Earth’s Composition, 38
Differentiation of Earth, 39
Focus 2.4. Planetary Density, 40
Focus 2.5. The Moon, 42
Earth’s Core: Is It Iron?, 43
How Earth Works, 45
The Future of Earth and Our Solar System, 47
The Big Crunch, 47
The End of the Sun and Earth, 47
Summary, 50
Key Terms, 50
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 50
Part II. Composition and Time, 51
Chapter 3. Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks, 52
Overview, 53
Introduction, 54
What Is a Mineral?, 54
Building Minerals from Atoms, 55
Mineral Formation: Chemical Bonding, 55
Focus 3.1. A Chemistry Refresher: Atoms and the Periodic Table, 56
Crystals, 57
Crystal Structures, 57
Focus 3.2. Determining Crystal Structures and Compositions, 59
Focus 3.3. Mineral Stability and Phase Diagrams, 60
Controls on Crystal Structure, 61
Mineral Properties, 63
Crystal Shape, 63
Crystal Habit, 63
Specific Gravity, 64
Focus 3.4. Thin Sections, 64
Color, 65
Streak, 65
Fracture and Cleavage, 66
Luster, 66
Transparency, Translucency, and Opacity, 66
Hardness, 66
Other Properties, 67
Mineral Groups, 67
Silicate Minerals, 67
Nonsilicate Minerals, 72
Distribution of Elements and Minerals in Earth, 73
Compositional Layering within Earth, 73
Summary, 75
Key Terms, 76
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 76
Chapter 4. The Cornerstones of Geology: Rocks!, 78
Overview, 79
Introduction, 80
Igneous Rocks, 80
Melting and Magmatism, 80
Intrusive and Extrusive Rocks, 83
Focus 4.1. Simulating Earth’s Interior, 83
Focus 4.2. Crystallization of Lava: The Hawaiian Lava Lake, 87
Intrusions, 89
Volcanoes, 90
Sedimentary Rocks, 97
Sedimentary Systems, 98
Types of Sediments, 98
Sedimentary Structures, 103
Lithification and Diagenesis, 104
Metamorphic Rocks, 107
Metamorphic Grade, 107
Focus 4.3. Determining Metamorphic Pressures and Temperatures, 110
Types of Metamorphism, 111
The Rock Cycle, 113
Focus 4.4. Getting Information from Rocks: Observation and Interpretation, 114
Summary, 117
Key Terms, 117
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 118
Chapter 5. Earth Processes: Physical Principles, 120
Overview, 121
Introduction, 122
Seismic Waves, 122
Density, 122
Elasticity, 123
Seismic P and S Waves, 124
Velocity Variations within Earth, 126
Travel-Time Curves, 126
Focus 5.1. The Velocities of Seismic Waves, 126
Travel Times within Earth, 129
Normal Modes, 129
Velocity Variations in the Crust, 130
Velocity Variations in the Mantle, 132
Seismic Velocity Variations in the Core, 132
Seismic Tomography, 132
Gravity and Isostasy, 135
Gravity, 135
Free-Air Gravity, 136
Bouguer Gravity, 137
Gravity Anomalies, 138
Isostasy, 139
Focus 5.2. Isostasy: Controls on Surface Elevation, 140
Geomagnetism, 142
The Geodynamo, 144
Changes in Earth’s Magnetic Field, 145
Paleomagnetism, 146
Focus 5.3. Magnetic Fields in Space, 146
Summary, 148
Key Terms, 148
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 149
Chapter 6. The Perspective of Geologic Time, 150
Overview, 151
Introduction, 152
The Age of Earth, 152
Dating the Geologic Record, 154
Stratigraphy, 154
Unconformities, 156
Fossil Correlation, 162
Focus 6.1. Meteorite Impacts and Mass Extinctions, 165
Radioactive Dating, 168
Dating Geologic Materials, 170
Calibrating Geologic Time, 172
Focus 6.2. Dating Rocks, Minerals, and Other Materials Using Isotopes, 172
Focus 6.3. Carbon Dating and Its Uses, 173
Summary, 174
Key Terms, 174
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 175
Part III. Earth Dynamics, 177
Chapter 7. Plate Tectonics, 178
Overview, 179
Introduction, 180
Continental Drift: The Beginnings of the Idea, 181
Wegener’s Theory, 182
Problems with Continental Drift, 182
Geosynclines and Mountain Building, 185
Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory, 186
The Ocean Bottom and Sea-Floor Spreading, 186
Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering, 186
Paleomagnetism and Sea-Floor Spreading, 187
The Rock Record: Fossils, Climate, and Continents, 189
Earth’s Climate, 190
Pangaea: Reconstruction of the Lost Continent, 191
Plates and Plate Boundaries, 192
Defining Boundaries and Continents, 192
Rates of Plate Movement, 194
Triple Junctions, 194
Focus 7.1. The Nature of the Low-Velocity Zone, 194
A Plate-Tectonic Link to Earthquakes and Volcanoes, 196
Focus 7.2. The San Andreas Fault, California, 196
Focus 7.3. Hawaii: An Example of Intraplate Magmatism, 198
Plumes and Hot Spot Trails, 200
Topography of the Lithosphere, 201
What Drives Plate Motions?, 203
Mechanics of Slab Pull, 203
Research on Extension and Compression, 205
Plumes, Subducted Slabs, and the Workings of Plate Tectonics, 205
Plate Motions through Geologic Time, 206
Focus 7.4. Vector Notation for Plate Motion, 207
Ocean Basin Depths and Satellite Altimetry, 208
Summary, 210
Key Terms, 211
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 211
Chapter 8. Deformation, Earthquakes, and Formation of Geologic Structures, 212
Overview, 213
Introduction, 214
Crustal Deformation, 214
Stress and Strain, 214
How Rocks Respond to Deformation, 215
Geologic Structures, 216
Joints, 216
Faults, 217
Folds, 219
Earthquakes, 223
Earthquakes at Plate Margins, 224
Measuring Earthquakes, 226
Earthquake Locations, 226
Earthquake Sizes, 228
Focus 8.1. Calculation of Moment Magnitude, 229
Foreshocks and Aftershocks, 231
Earthquake Motions, 231
Focus 8.2. Prediction of the Haicheng Earthquake of 1975, 232
Focus 8.3. The Loma Prieta Earthquake, 234
Plate Motions and Earthquakes, 237
Measurement of Past Plate Motions, 237
Geodesy and Measurement of Present-Day Plate Motions, 237
Strain Measurement: Strainmeters and Tiltmeters, 238
Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), 241
Intraplate Deformation, 242
Elastic Flexure of the Lithosphere, 243
The Volcano Deformation Cycle, 244
Focus 8.4. Volcanic Deformation in Hawaii, 245
Summary, 247
Key Terms, 247
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 248
Chapter 9. Making and Breaking Plates, 250
Overview, 251
Introduction, 252
Rifts: Windows to the Mantle, 252
Continental Breakup and Plate Migration, 252
Oceans Subduct and Continents Rift, 254
Oceanic Rifting, 254
Mid-Ocean Ridges, 254
Oceanic Crust, Lithosphere, and Asthenosphere, 255
Anatomy of a Mid-Ocean Ridge, 256
Interaction of Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts and Seawater, 258
Ocean-Ridge Uplift, 260
Central Grabens, 261
The Driving Mechanism for Sea-Floor Spreading, 261
Focus 9.1. The East Pacific Rise and Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 262
Transform Margins, 263
Focus 9.2. The Alpine Fault, New Zealand, 264
Oceanic Transform Faults and Fracture Zones, 266
Continental Transforms, 267
Strike-Slip Faulting and Fault-Bend Geometries, 268
Continental Rifting, 270
Structure of Continental Rifts, 270
Focus 9.3. The Salton Trough of California, 270
Gravity Variations and Deep Structure, 273
Failed Rifts, 274
The Mechanisms for Continental Rifting, 275
Focus 9.4. Continental Rifting: The East African Rift, 278
Summary, 281
Key Terms, 282
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 282
Chapter 10. Destroying Plates and Building Continents, 284
Overview, 285
Introduction, 286
Convergent Plate Margins: Structure and Dynamics, 286
Earthquakes at Convergent Margins, 287
Magmatism at Convergent Margins, 291
Focus 10.1. The Andes and the Lesser Antilles: A Continental Arc and an Oceanic Arc, 292
Building Continents, 296
Structure of the Continental Crust, 297
The Ancient Cores of Continents, 297
Rise and Fall of Mountain Ranges, 299
Focus 10.2. The Continental Collision between India and Asia and the Building of the Himalayas, 302
Collage Tectonics and Exotic Terranes, 305
The Origin of the Continental Lithosphere, 308
Summary, 308
Key Terms, 309
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 309
Part IV. Shaping of Earth, 311
Chapter 11. Earth’s Water, 312
Overview, 313
Introduction, 314
Properties of Water, 314
Water in the Solar System, 316
Focus 11.1. Water beyond Earth, 316
The Origin of Earth’s Water, 318
The Origin of Earth’s Oceans, 319
Water and Plate Tectonics, 320
Strength of Rocks, 320
Water and Subduction, 321
Water and Volcanism, 321
Water and the Formation of Continental Crust, 321
Water Cycles, 322
Fresh Water, 323
Groundwater, 323
Focus 11.2. Water Movement, 325
Geysers and Geothermal Energy, 329
Our Need for Water, 329
Agricultural Use, 330
Mining Water, 331
Replenishing Water, 332
Exploring for Water, 332
Focus 11.3. Saltwater and Freshwater Isostasy, 332
Summary, 333
Key Terms, 334
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 335
Chapter 12. The Formation of Sediment: Weathering, 336
Overview, 337
Introduction, 338
Physical Weathering: The Disaggregation of Rocks into Sediment, 339
Effects of Joints and Fractures on Massive Rocks, 340
Mechanical Disintegration of Solid Rock into Grains, 340
Chemical Weathering: Oxidation, Hydration, and Hydrolysis of Minerals, 341
How Water Reacts with Silicate Minerals, 341
Focus 12.1. Acids and Minerals, 343
Weathering Products and Solubility, 344
Development of Soils, 345
Focus 12.2. Why Is the Ocean Salty?, 346
Chemical Separation during Weathering, 347
Effect of Lithology on Weathering, 351
How Water Reacts with Carbonate Minerals, 351
Effect of Geologic Structure on Weathering, 353
Weathering and Plate-Tectonic Setting, 354
Shield and Platform Areas, 355
Passive and Active Margins, 355
The Role of Climate in Weathering, 356
Arid Environments, 356
Temperate Environments, 360
Tropical Environments, 361
Summary, 362
Key Terms, 363
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 363
Chapter 13. Sedimentary Systems: Transportation and Deposition of Sediments, 364
Overview, 365
Introduction, 366
Transportation of Sediments, 367
Turbulence and Discharge, 367
Sediment Transport in Air and Water, 368
Sediment Transport in Mud, 369
Grain Sorting, 369
Focus 13.1. Controls on Settling Velocities of Grains, 370
Sedimentary Structures Formed during Transportation, 371
Flow and Sediment Transport in Natural Rivers, 371
Deposition of Sediments, 375
River Environments, 375
Lake Environments, 378
Desert Environments, 380
Shorelines, 382
Shallow Marine Environments, 385
Deep Marine Environments, 389
Tectonic Control on Sedimentary Processes and Depositional Environments, 391
Effects on Cratons, 391
Effects at Convergent Margins, 392
Effects at Divergent Margins, 392
Effects at Transform Margins, 393
Summary, 394
Key Terms, 394
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 395
Chapter 14. Geomorphology: The Study of Landforms, 396
Overview, 397
Introduction, 398
Mass Wasting, 398
The Importance of Water in Mass Wasting, 398
Focus 14.1. Fractals and Scale Invariance in Geology, 399
Falls, 401
Slides and Slumps, 401
Focus 14.2. The Physics of Mass Wasting, 401
Flows, 402
Soil Creep, 402
Shaping the Surface: The Hydrologic Cycle, 404
Fluvial Geomorphology, 406
Geomorphic Age, 406
Effects of Climate, 406
Drainage Patterns, 409
Glaciers, 410
Focus 14.3. Ice Ages, 412
What Is a Glacier?, 414
Glacial Erosion and Deposition, 417
End of the Last Ice Age, 418
Deserts, 419
Distribution and Origin of Deserts, 419
Erosion and Deposition in Deserts: Effects of Water and Wind, 419
Coasts, 421
Waves and Tides, 421
Coastal Erosion and Deposition, 423
Emergent and Submergent Coasts, 425
Sediment Budget to Shorelines, 425
Volcanic Islands, 425
Geomorphology at Passive and Active Continental Margins, 425
Summary, 428
Key Terms, 428
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 428
Part V. Earth and Environment, 429
Chapter 15. Geologic Hazards and the Environment, 430
Overview, 431
Introduction, 432
Earthquakes: Where the Dangers Are, 433
Earthquake Strength, 433
Focus 15.1. A Comparison of Two Earthquakes: At a Subduction Zone and in a Plate Interior, 436
Building Failure in Earthquakes, 437
Effects of Geology on Building Survival, 439
Liquefaction, 439
Effects of Construction Techniques and Materials on Building Survival, 440
Tsunamis, 441
Volcanic Hazards, 443
Primary Hazardous Effects, 443
Focus 15.2. The Eruption of Mount St. Helens, 444
Secondary Hazardous Effects, 450
Volcanoes, Atmospheric Pollution, and Climate Change, 452
Landslides, 453
Geology of Landslide Damage, 453
Causes of Landslides, 454
Flooding, 455
Incidental Pollution and Flood Runoff, 456
Floodplains and Stream Channels in Urban Areas, 457
Dams and Flood Control, 458
Coastal Erosion Problems, 459
Surface Subsidence, 459
Pollution, 462
Pollution of Water Reservoirs, 462
Acid Rain, 464
Petroleum in the Marine Environment, 465
The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming, 466
How the Greenhouse Effect Works, 467
Evidence for Recent Climate Changes, 469
Geologic Feedback, 471
The Ozone Hole, 471
Focus 15.3. The Antarctic Ozone Hole, 472
Summary, 473
Key Terms, 473
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 474
Chapter 16. Earth’s Resources, 476
Overview, 477
Introduction, 478
Mineral Resources, 478
Minerals and Society, 478
Mineral Deposits, 479
Magmatic and Metamorphic Processes, 480
Hydrothermal Processes, 481
Sedimentary Processes, 484
Weathering Processes, 485
Prospecting for Mineral Deposits, 485
Nonmetallic Economic Deposits, 486
Minerals and Plate Tectonics, 487
Fossil Fuels, 488
Focus 16.1. Uranium Ore and Nuclear Energy, 488
Peat, 489
Coal, 491
Focus 16.2. How Plate Tectonics Redistributes Mineral and Organic Resources, 493
Petroleum, 494
Oil Exploration, 497
Oil Recovery, 501
Superheated Water and Geothermal Energy, 501
Estimating the Time until Nonrenewable Resources Will Run Out, 503
Mineral Reserves, 504
Energy Consumption, 504
Coal Reserves, 505
Oil Reserves, 506
Focus 16.3. Resources from Space, 508
Summary, 508
Key Terms, 509
Questions for Review and Further Thought, 509
Appendix I. Conversion Tables, 510
Appendix II. Geologic Time Scale, 512
Appendix III. The Periodic Table of the Elements, 513
Appendix IV. Common Minerals and their Properties, 514
Appendix V. Rock Types, Descriptions, and Examples, 516
Appendix VI. Earth Statistics, 518
Glossary, 519
Photo Credits, 537
Index, 541

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