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Copyright, ii
Companion Website Multimedia Contents, xi
Preface, xiii
Part One. Energy and Mass, 1-a
1. Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere, 2
The Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate, 4
Thickness of the Atmosphere, 5
Composition of the Atmosphere, 5
The Permanent Gases, 6
Variable Gases, 7
1-1. Focus on the Environment: Photosynthesis, Respiration, and Carbon Dioxide, 9
Aerosols, 11
1-2. Focus on the Environment: Depletion of the Ozone Layer, 12
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere, 13
Density, 13
Layering Based on Temperature Profiles, 14
A Layer Based on Electrical Properties: The Ionosphere, 17
1-3. Physical Principles: The Three Temperature Scales, 18
Evolution of the Atmosphere, 19
Some Weather Basics, 20
Atmospheric Pressure and Wind, 20
Temperature, 22
Humidity, 23
A Brief History of Meteorology, 23
1-4. Focus on the Environment: Billion-Dollar Weather Disasters, 23
2. Solar Radiation and the Seasons, 32
Energy, 33
Kinds of Energy, 34
Energy Transfer Mechanisms, 35
Radiation, 36
Radiation Quantity and Quality, 37
Intensity and Wavelengths of Emitted Radiation, 38
2-1. Physical Principles: The Nature of Radiation, Absorption, and Emission, 40
2-2. Physical Principles: The Sun, 42
The Solar Constant, 44
The Causes of Earth’s Seasons, 44
Earth’s Revolution and Rotation, 45
Changes in Energy Receipt with Latitude, 53
3. Energy Balance and Temperature, 58
Atmospheric Influences on Insolation, 60
Absorption, 60
Reflection and Scattering, 60
Transmission, 63
Spatial Distribution of Solar Radiation, 64
The Fate of Solar Radiation, 64
Energy Transfer Processes Between the Surface and the Atmosphere, 66
Surface–Atmosphere Radiation Exchange, 66
3-1. Physical Principles: Selective Absorption by Water Vapor and Carbon Dioxide, 67
Conduction, 69
Convection, 69
Net Radiation and Global Temperature, 72
Latitudinal Variations, 73
The Greenhouse Effect, 73
3-2. Physical Principles: Earth’s Equilibrium Temperature, 75
Global Temperature Distributions, 75
Influences on Temperature, 77
Latitude, 77
Altitude, 77
Atmospheric Circulation Patterns, 78
Contrasts Between Land and Water, 78
Warm and Cold Ocean Currents, 78
Local Conditions, 79
Daily and Annual Temperature Patterns, 79
Measurement of Temperature, 82
Instrument Shelters, 84
Temperature Means and Ranges, 84
Global Extremes, 85
Some Useful Temperature Indices, 85
Wind Chill Temperatures, 85
3-3. Special Interest: Recent Severe Heat Waves, 86
Heating and Cooling Degree-Days, 88
Growing Degree-Days, 88
Thermodynamic Diagrams and Vertical Temperature Profiles, 88
Observed and Predicted Warming, 91
Recent Observed Changes in Temperature, 92
Changes in the Occurrences of Extreme Heat and Cold, 92
Projected Changes in Temperature, 93
The Role of Human Activity, 93
4. Atmospheric Pressure and Wind, 100
The Concept of Pressure, 101
4-1. Physical Principles: Velocity, Acceleration, Force, and Pressure, 102
Vertical and Horizontal Changes in Pressure, 104
The Equation of State, 105
4-2. Physical Principles: Variations in Density, 106
Measuring Pressure, 107
Mercury Barometers, 107
Corrections to Mercury Barometer Readings, 108
Aneroid Barometers, 108
The Distribution of Pressure, 109
Pressure Gradients, 109
Hydrostatic Equilibrium, 110
Horizontal Pressure Gradients in the Upper Atmosphere, 111
4-3. Physical Principles: The Hydrostatic Equation, 112
Forces Affecting the Speed and Direction of the Wind, 114
The Coriolis Force, 114
4-4. Physical Principles: The Coriolis Effect, 116
Friction, 116
4-5. Physical Principles: The Equation of Motion, 117
Winds in the Upper Atmosphere, 117
Gradient Flow, 118
Supergeostrophic and Subgeostrophic Flow, 118
Near-Surface Winds, 120
Cyclones, Anticyclones, Troughs, and Ridges, 120
4-6. Special Interest: Strong Winds and the Little Rock, Arkansas, Air Disaster, 125
Measuring Wind, 125
Part Two. Water in the Atmosphere, 130
5. Atmospheric Moisture, 132
The Hydrologic Cycle, 133
Water Vapor and Liquid Water, 135
Evaporation and Condensation, 135
Indices of Water Vapor Content, 136
Vapor Pressure, 136
Absolute Humidity, 137
Specific Humidity, 137
Mixing Ratio, 138
Relative Humidity, 138
Dew Point, 140
Distribution of Water Vapor, 141
5-1. Forecasting: Dew Point and Nighttime Minimum Temperatues, 142
Methods of Achieving Saturation, 142
5-2. Forecasting: Vertical Profiles of Moisture, 143
The Effects of Curvature and Solution, 145
Effect of Curvature, 146
Effects of Solution and Size, 147
Ice Nuclei, 148
Measuring Humidity, 149
5-3. Forecasting: Water Vapor and Infrared Satellite Imagery, 152
High Humidities and Human Discomfort, 152
Cooling the Air to the Dew or Frost Point, 153
Diabatic Processes, 154
Adiabatic Processes, 154
5-4. Physical Principles: The Varying Value of the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate, 156
The Environmental Lapse Rate, 156
Forms of Condensation, 157
Dew, 157
Frost, 158
Frozen Dew, 158
Fog, 158
Distribution of Fog, 161
Formation and Dissipation of Cloud Droplets, 162
Atmospheric Moisture and Climate Change, 163
6. Cloud Development and Forms, 168
Mechanisms That Lift Air, 170
Orographic Uplift, 170
Frontal Lifting, 172
Convergence, 172
Localized Convection, 173
Static Stability and the Environmental Lapse Rate, 173
Absolutely Unstable Air, 174
Absolutely Stable Air, 174
Conditionally Unstable Air, 175
Static and Potential Instability, 175
Factors Influencing the Environmental Lapse Rate, 176
Heating or Cooling of the Lower Atmosphere, 176
Advection of Cold and Warm Air at Different Levels, 177
Advection of an Air Mass with a Different ELR, 177
6-1. Forecasting: Determining Stability from Thermodynamic Diagrams, 178
Limitations on the Lifting of Unstable Air, 179
A Layer of Stable Air, 179
6-2. Forecasting: Potential Instability, 180
Entrainment, 181
Extremely Stable Air: Inversions, 181
Cloud Types, 182
6-3. Special Interest: Radiation Inversions and Human Activities, 183
High Clouds, 184
Middle Clouds, 187
Low Clouds, 188
Clouds with Vertical Development, 189
Unusual Clouds, 190
6-4. Special Interest: Why Clouds Have Clearly Defined Boundaries, 191
Cloud Coverage and Observation, 193
Surface-Based Observation of Clouds, 194
Cloud Observation by Satellite, 194
6-5. Physical Principles: The Surprising Composition of Clouds, 195
7. Precipitation Processes, 200
Growth of Cloud Droplets, 202
7-1. Physical Principles: Why Cloud Droplets Don’t Fall, 203
Growth by Condensation, 204
Growth in Warm Clouds, 204
Growth in Cool and Cold Clouds, 205
Distribution and Forms of Precipitation, 207
Snow, 208
Rain, 212
Graupel and Hail, 213
Sleet, 214
Freezing Rain, 214
7-2. Physical Principles: The Effect of Hail Size on Damage, 216
Measuring Precipitation, 216
Raingages, 216
Snow Measurement, 219
Cloud Seeding, 220
Part Three. Distribution and Movement of Air, 224
8. Atmospheric Circulation and Pressure Distributions, 226
Single-Cell Model, 227
The Three-Cell Model, 229
The Hadley Cell, 229
The Ferrel and Polar Cells, 231
The Three-Cell Model vs. Reality: The Bottom Line, 231
Semipermanent Pressure Cells, 231
8-1. Physical Principles: Problems with the Single-Cell Model, 232
The Upper Troposphere, 235
Westerly Winds in the Upper Atmosphere, 236
The Polar Front and Jet Streams, 237
Troughs and Ridges, 238
Rossby Waves, 238
8-2. Physical Principles: The Movement of Rossby Waves, 241
The Oceans, 241
Ocean Currents, 242
8-3. Physical Principles: The Dishpan Experiment, 243
Upwelling, 244
Major Wind Systems, 246
Monsoons, 246
Foehn, Chinook, and Santa Ana Winds, 249
8-4. Focus on the Environment: Wildfires, 251
Katabatic Winds, 253
Sea and Land Breeze, 253
Valley and Mountain Breeze, 254
Air–Sea Interactions, 255
El Niño, La Niña, and the Walker Circulation, 256
8-5. Physical Principles: What Causes El Niños and the Southern Oscillation?, 260
Pacific Decadal Oscillation, 261
Arctic Oscillation, 266
9. Air Masses and Fronts, 272
Formation of Air Masses, 273
Source Regions, 274
Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA) Air Masses, 274
Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses, 276
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses, 276
Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses, 277
9-1. Special Interest: Maritime Air Masses Invade Eastern North America, 278
Fronts, 282
Cold Fronts, 282
9-2. Special Interest: The Pineapple Express, 283
Warm Fronts, 285
9-3. Special Interest: An Example of a Cold Front, 286
Stationary Fronts, 290
Occluded Fronts, 290
Drylines, 292
Part Four. Disturbances, 296
10. Midlatitude Cyclones, 298
Polar Front Theory, 299
The Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone, 300
Cyclogenesis, 300
Mature Cyclones, 300
Occlusion, 302
Movement of Cyclones, 303
Processes of the Middle and Upper Troposphere, 304
Rossby Waves and Vorticity, 304
Surface Fronts and Upper-Level Patterns, 307
Cold Fronts and the Formation of Upper-Level Troughs, 307
10-1. Physical Principles: Vorticity and the Maintenance of Rossby Waves, 308
Interaction of Surface Upper-Level Conditions, 309
10-2. Physical Principles: A Closer Look at Divergence and Convergence, 310
An Example of a Midlatitude Cyclone, 310
April 15, 311
10-3. Forecasting: Short Waves in the Upper Atmosphere and Their Effect on Surface Conditions, 312
April 16, 312
April 17, 314
April 18, 315
Flow Patterns and Large-Scale Weather, 316
The Steering of Midlatitude Cyclones, 318
Migration of Surface Cyclones Relative to Rossby Waves, 319
The Modern View: Midlatitude Cyclones and Conveyor Belts, 320
Anticyclones, 322
Climate Change and Midlatitude Cyclones, 322
11. Lightning, Thunder, and Tornadoes, 326
Processes of Lightning Formation, 328
Charge Separation, 328
11-1. Physical Principles: Electricity in the Atmosphere, 329
Runaway Discharges, 329
Leaders, Strokes, and Flashes, 330
Types of Lightning, 331
Thunder, 331
11-2. Special Interest: A Personal Account of Ball Lightning, 332
Lightning Safety, 333
Thunderstorms: Air Mass and Severe, 333
Air Mass Thunderstorms, 333
Severe Thunderstorms, 335
Downbursts, Derechos, and Microbursts, 340
Geographic and Temporal Distribution of Thunderstorms, 341
11-3. Forecasting: Doppler Radar, 342
Tornadoes, 347
11-4. Special Interest: Tornado Research, 348
Tornado Characteristics and Dimensions, 348
Tornado Formation, 348
The Location and Timing of Tornadoes, 351
Trends in U.S. Tornado Occurrence, 353
Tornado Damage, 353
Fatalities, 356
Watches and Warnings, 361
Convective Outlooks, 362
Tornado Outbreaks, 363
Waterspouts, 365
12. Tropical Storms and Hurricanes, 370
Hurricanes Around the Globe: The Tropical Setting, 372
Hurricane Characteristics, 373
Hurricane Structure, 374
The Eye and the Eye Wall, 376
Hurricane Formation, 376
Steps in the Formation of Hurricanes, 376
Conditions Necessary for Hurricane Formation, 379
Hurricane Movement and Dissipation, 379
Hurricane Paths, 379
12-1. Special Interest: Naming Hurricanes, 380
Effect of Landfall, 383
Hurricane Destruction and Fatalities, 383
12-2. Special Interest: 2004 and 2005: Two Historic Hurricane Seasons, 384
Wind, 386
Heavy Rain, 386
Tornadoes, 387
Storm Surges, 387
Hurricane Forecasts and Advisories, 391
12-3. Special Interest: Hurricane Katrina, 392
Hurricane Watches and Warnings, 396
Hurricane Intensity Scale, 397
Recent (and Future?) Trends in Hurricane Activity, 397
12-4. Forecasting: Seasonal and Long-Term Hurricane Forecasts, 398
12-5. Special Interest: The Galveston Hurricane of 1900, 402
12-6. Special Interest: Recent Deadly Cyclones, 403
Part Five. Human Activities, 408
13. Weather Forecasting and Analysis, 410
Weather Forecasting—Both Art and Science, 411
Why Is Weather Forecasting Imperfect?, 415
Forecasting Methods, 416
Types of Forecasts, 417
Assessing Forecasts, 417
Data Acquisition and Dissemination, 418
13-1. Special Interest: Modernization of the National Weather Service, 419
Forecast Procedures and Products, 420
Phases in Numerical Modeling, 420
Medium-Range Forecasts, 423
Long-Range Forecasts and Seasonal Outlooks, 425
Weather Maps and Images, 428
Surface Maps, 428
Upper-Level Maps, 429
Satellite Images, 435
Radar Images, 436
Thermodynamic Diagrams, 436
Lifted Index, 438
K-Index, 438
13-2. Special Interest: Television Weather Segments, 440
Numerical Forecast Models, 445
14. Human Effects: Air Pollution and Heat Islands, 450
Atmospheric Pollutants, 451
Particulates, 452
14-1. Focus on the Environment: Severe Pollution Episodes, 453
Carbon Oxides, 454
Sulfur Compounds, 455
Nitrogen Oxides (NO_x), 457
Volatile Organic Compounds (Hydrocarbons), 457
Photochemical Smog, 458
Atmospheric Controls on Air Pollution, 459
Effect of Winds on Horizontal Transport, 459
Effect of Atmospheric Stability, 459
14-2. Focus on the Environment: The Counter-offensive on Air Pollution, 460
Urban Heat Islands, 462
Radiation Effects, 463
Changes in Heat Storage, 463
14-3. Focus on the Environment: Smog in Southern California, 464
Sensible and Latent Heat Transfer, 466
Part Six. Current, Past, and Future Climates, 472
15. Earth’s Climate, 474
Defining Climate, 475
The Koeppen System, 476
Tropical Climates, 477
Tropical Wet (Af), 477
Monsoonal (Am), 478
15-1. Special Interest: Different Climate Classification Schemes for Different Purposes, 480
Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw), 482
Dry Climates, 483
Subtropical Deserts (BWh), 483
Subtropical Steppe (BSh), 485
Midlatitude Deserts (BWk), 485
Midlatitude Steppe (BSk), 486
Mild Midlatitude Climates, 486
Mediterranean (Csa, Csb), 487
Humid Subtropical (Cfa, Cwa), 488
Marine West Coast (Cfb, Cfc), 489
Severe Midlatitude Climates, 490
Humid Continental (Dfa, Dfb, Dwa, Dwb), 490
Subarctic (Dfc, Dfd, Dwc, Dwd), 490
Polar Climates, 491
Tundra (ET), 491
Ice Cap (EF), 492
Highland Climates (H), 492
16. Climate Changes: Past and Future, 496
Defining Climate Change, 497
The Time Scales of Climate Change, 498
16-1. Physical Principles: Blaming Climate Changes, 499
Past Climates, 499
Warm Intervals and Ice Ages, 499
The Current Ice Age, 501
The Last Glacial Maximum, 502
The Holocene, 504
The Last Century, 506
16-2. Focus on the Environment: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 507
Variations on Characteristic Time Scales, 507
Factors Involved in Climatic Change, 510
Variations in Solar Output, 510
Changes in Earth’s Orbit, 511
Changes in Land Configuration and Surface Characteristics, 513
Changes in Atmospheric Turbidity, 513
Changes in Radiation-Absorbing Gases, 516
Feedback Mechanisms, 519
16-3. Focus on the Environment: Plant Migrations and Global Change, 524
General Circulation Models, 524
Attributing Climate Change, 524
Projecting Climate Change, 526
Methods for Determining Past Climates, 527
Oceanic Deposits, 528
Ice Cores, 529
Remnant Landforms, 529
Past Vegetation, 530
Relic Soils, 532
Part Seven. Special Topics and Appendices, 536
17. Atmospheric Optics, 538
Clear Air Effects, 539
Refraction and the Setting or Rising Sun, 539
Mirages, 540
Cloud and Precipitation Optics, 542
Rainbows, 542
Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars, 544
Coronas and Glories, 545
Appendix A. Units of Measurement and Conversions, 549
Appendix B. The Standard Atmosphere, 550
Appendix C. Weather Map Symbols, 551
Appendix D. Weather Extremes, 555
Glossary, 562
Credits, 572
Index, 575

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