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Copyright, iv
Preface, xv
1. Introduction to the Atmosphere, 1-1
Meterology, Weather, and Climate, 4
Atmospheric Hazards: Assault by the Elements, 5
The Nature of Scientific Inquiry, 8
Hypothesis, 8
Theory, 8
Scientific Methods, 8
Observing the Atmosphere, 9
High-Altitude Observations, 9
Weather Radar and Satellites, 10
Earth’s Spheres, 11
The Geosphere, 13
The Atmosphere, 13
Box 1–1 Monitoring Earth From Space, 14
The Hydrosphere, 14
The Biosphere, 15
Earth as a System, 15
Earth System Science, 15
The Earth System, 17
Box 1–2 The Carbon Cycle: One of Earth’s Subsystems, 18
Composition of the Atmosphere, 19
Major Components, 19
Carbon Dioxide, 20
Variable Components, 20
Box 1–3 Earth’s Atmosphere Evolves, 21
Ozone Depletion—A Global Issue, 23
The Antarctic Ozone Hole, 23
Effects of Ozone Depletion, 24
Box 1–4 Important Reactions Involving Ozone in the Stratosphere, 25
Montreal Protocol, 25
Extent of the Atmosphere, 26
Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere, 27
Troposphere, 27
Stratosphere, 28
Mesosphere, 28
Thermosphere, 28
Vertical Variations in Composition, 28
Ionosphere, 29
The Auroras, 29
Chapter Summary, 30
Vocabulary Review, 32
Review Questions, 32
Problems, 32
Atmospheric Science Online, 33
GEODE: Atmosphere, 33
2. Heating Earth’s Surface and Atmosphere, 34
Earth-Sun Relationships, 36
Earth’s Motions, 37
The Seasons, 37
Earth’s Orientation, 38
Solstices and Equinoxes, 39
Box 2–1 When are the Seasons?, 42
Energy, Heat, and Temperature, 43
Forms of Energy, 43
Temperature, 44
Box 2–2 The Analemma, 44
Heat, 45
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer, 45
Conduction, 45
Convection, 46
Radiation, 46
Box 2–3 The Ultraviolet Index, 48
What Happens to Incoming Solar Radiation?, 49
Box 2–4 Radiation Laws, 50
Reflection and Scattering, 50
Absorption by Earth’s Surface and Atmosphere, 52
Radiation Emitted by Earth, 52
Heating the Atmosphere, 53
The Greenhouse Effect, 54
Role of Clouds in Heating Earth, 55
Heat Budget, 55
Box 2–5 Infrared Imaging, 56
Latitudinal Heat Balance, 57
Box 2–6 Solar Power, 58
Chapter Summary, 60
Vocabulary Review, 61
Review Questions, 62
Problems, 62
Atmospheric Science Online, 63
GEODE: Atmosphere, 63
3. Temperature, 64
For the Record: Air-Temperature Data, 66
Box 3–1 North America’s Hottest and Coldest Places, 67
Why Temperatures Vary: The Controls of Temperature, 68
Land and Water, 69
Box 3–2 Atmospheric Hazard: Heat Waves—Deadly Events, 70
Ocean Currents, 71
Altitude, 73
Geographic Position, 74
Cloud Cover and Albedo, 75
World Distribution of Temperatures, 76
Box 3–3 Latitude and Temperature Range, 78
Cycles of Air Temperature, 79
Daily Temperature Variations, 80
Magnitude of Daily Temperature Changes, 81
Annual Temperature Variations, 81
Temperature Movement, 81
Mechanical Thermometers, 81
Box 3–4 How Cities Influence Temperature: The Urban Heat Island, 82
Electrical Thermometers, 84
Instrument Shelters, 85
Temperature Scales, 86
Applications of Temperature Data, 87
Heating Degree-Days, 87
Cooling Degree-Days, 87
Growing Degree-Days, 87
Temperature and Comfort, 88
Box 3–5 Windchill: The Cooling Power of Moving Air, 89
Chapter Summary, 89
Vocabulary Review, 90
Review Questions, 91
Problems, 92
Atmospheric Science Online, 93
GEODE: Atmosphere, 93
4. Moisture and Atmospheric Stability, 94
Movement of Water Through the Atmosphere, 96
Box 4–1 Water: A Unique Substance, 98
Water’s Changes of State, 98
Ice, Liquid Water, and Water Vapor, 98
Latent Heat, 99
Humidity: Water Vapor in the Air, 101
Vapor Pressure and Saturation, 102
Relative Humidity, 104
How Relative Humidity Changes, 104
Box 4–2 Dry Air at 100 Percent Relative Humidity?, 104
Relative Humidity, 104
How Relative Humidity Changes, 104
Natural Changes in Relative Humidity, 105
Natural Changes in Relative Humidity, 105
Box 4–3 Humidifiers and Dehumidifiers, 106
Dew-Point Temperature, 106
Humidity Measurement, 108
Box 4–4 Atmospheric Hazard: Humidity and Heat Stress, 108
Adiabatic Temperature Changes, 110
Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation, 110
Processes That Lift Air, 111
Orographic Lifting, 111
Frontal Wedging, 112
Convergence, 112
Box 4–5 Precipitation Records and Mountainous Terrain, 113
Box 4–6 Orographic Effects: Windward Precipitation and Leeward Rain Shadows, 114
Localized Convective Lifting, 114
Types of Stability, 116
Stability and Daily Weather, 119
How Stability Changes, 120
Temperature Changes and Stability, 120
Vertical Air Movement and Stability, 121
Chapter Summary, 121
Vocabulary Review, 122
Review Questions, 123
Problems, 123
Atmospheric Science Online, 124
GEODE: Atmosphere, 125
5. Forms of Condensation and Precipitation, 126
Cloud Formation, 128
Condensation Aloft, 128
Growth of Cloud Droplets, 129
Cloud Classification, 129
High Clouds, 129
Middle Clouds, 131
Low Clouds, 131
Box 5–1 Aircraft Contrails and Cloudiness, 132
Clouds of Vertical Development, 133
Cloud Varieties, 134
Types of Fog, 136
Fogs Formed by Cooling, 136
Fogs Formed by Evaporation, 138
Dew and Frost, 138
How Precipitation Forms, 139
Precipitation from Cold Clouds: The Bergeron Process, 139
Box 5–2 Forces Acting on Cloud Droplets and Raindrops, 140
Box 5–3 Science and Serendipity, 141
Precipitation from Warm Clouds: The Collision–Coalescence Process, 142
Forms of Precipitation, 144
Rain, 144
Snow, 145
Sleet and Glaze, 146
Hail, 146
Box 5–4 Atmospheric Hazard: Worst Winter Weather, 147
Rime, 150
Precipitation Measurement, 150
Standard Instruments, 150
Measuring Snowfall, 151
Measurement Errors, 151
Precipitation Measurement by Weather Radar, 151
Intentional Weather Modification, 152
Cloud Seeding, 152
Fog and Cloud Dispersal, 153
Hail Suppression, 154
Frost Prevention, 155
Understanding the Role of Clouds in the Climate System, 156
Chapter Summary, 157
Vocabulary Review, 158
Review Questions, 158
Problems, 159
Atmospheric Science Online, 159
GEODE: Atmosphere, 159
6. Air Pressure and Winds, 160
Understanding Air Pressure, 162
Measuring Air Pressure, 163
Pressure Changes with Altitude, 165
Box 6–1 Air Pressure and Aviation, 166
Horizontal Variations in Air Pressure, 166
Influence of Temperature and Water Vapor on Air Pressure, 167
Airflow and Pressure, 168
Factors Affecting Wind, 168
Pressure-Gradient Force, 168
Box 6–2 Pressure-Gradient Force, 171
Coriolis Force, 171
Friction, 172
Box 6–3 Coriolis Force as a Function of Wind Speed and Latitude, 173
Winds Aloft and Geostrophic Flow, 173
Curved Flow and the Gradient Wind, 176
Box 6–4 Do Baseballs Really Fly Farther at Denver’s Coors Field?, 177
Surface Winds, 177
How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion, 178
Vertical Airflow Associated with Cyclones and Anticyclones, 179
Factors That Promote Vertical Airflow, 181
Wind Measurement, 182
Box 6–5 Wind Energy: An Alternative with Potential, 184
Chapter Summary, 184
Vocabulary Review, 186
Review Questions, 186
Problems, 187
Atmospheric Science Online, 187
GEODE: Atmosphere, 187
7. Circulation of the Atmosphere, 188
Scales of Atmospheric Motion, 190
Large- and Small-Scale Circulation, 191
Structure of Wind Patterns, 191
Local Winds, 192
Box 7–1 Dust Devils, 193
Land and Sea Breezes, 194
Mountain and Valley Breezes, 194
Chinook (Foehn) Winds, 195
Katabatic (Fall) Winds, 195
Box 7–2 Atmospheric Hazard: Santa Ana Winds and Wildfires, 196
Country Breezes, 196
Global Circulation, 197
Single-Cell Circulation Model, 198
Three-Cell Circulation Model, 198
Observed Distribution of Pressure and Winds, 199
Idealized Zonal Pressure Belts, 199
Semipermanent Pressure Systems: The Real World, 200
Monsoons, 202
The Asian Monsoon, 202
The North American Monsoon, 203
The Westerlies, 204
Why Westerlies?, 204
Jet Streams, 205
Origin of the Polar Jet Stream, 205
Subtropical Jet Stream, 206
Waves in the Westerlies, 206
Westerlies and Earth’s Heat Budget, 208
Global Winds and Ocean Currents, 209
The Importance of Ocean Currents, 210
Ocean Currents and Upwelling, 210
El Niño and La Niña, 210
Global Distribution of Precipitation, 213
Box 7–3 Monitoring Winds from Space, 214
Zonal Distribution of Precipitation, 215
Distribution of Precipitation over the Continents, 216
Precipitation Regimes on a Hypothetical Continent, 217
Box 7–4 Tracking El Niño from Space, 219
Chapter Summary, 220
Vocabulary Review, 221
Review Questions, 221
Atmospheric Science Online, 223
8. Air Masses, 224
What Is an Air Mass?, 226
Source Regions, 227
Classifying Air Masses, 228
Air-Mass Modification, 228
Properties of North American Air Masses, 229
Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA) Air Masses, 230
Box 8–1 The Siberian Express, 231
Lake-Effect Snow: Cold Air over Warm Water, 232
Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses, 232
Box 8–2 Atmospheric Hazard: An Extraordinary Lake-Effect Snowstorm, 233
Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses, 235
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses, 237
Chapter Summary, 237
Vocabulary Review, 237
Review Questions, 238
Problems, 238
Atmospheric Science Online, 239
GEODE: Atmosphere, 239
9. Weather Patterns, 240
Polar-Front Theory (Norwegian Cyclone Model), 242
Fronts, 244
Warm Fronts, 245
Cold Fronts, 247
Stationary Fronts, 248
Occluded Fronts, 248
Drylines, 250
Life Cycle of a Mid-Latitude Cyclone, 250
Formation: The Clash of Two Air Masses, 250
Development of Cyclonic Flow, 250
Occlusion: The Beginning of the End, 252
Idealized Weather of a Mid-Latitude Cyclone, 252
Cyclone Formation, 254
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Circulation, 254
Divergence and Convergence Aloft, 255
Box 9–1 Winds as a Forecasting Tool, 256
Traveling Cyclones, 256
Patterns of Movement, 256
Flow Aloft and Cyclone Migration, 258
Anticyclonic Weather and Blocking Highs, 258
Case Study of a Mid-Latitude Cyclone, 259
Box 9–2 Atmospheric Hazard: The Midwest Floods of 2008 and 1993, 264
Violent Spring Weather, 266
Weather in Peoria, 267
A Modern View: The Conveyor Belt Model, 268
Chapter Summary, 270
Vocabulary Review, 271
Review Questions, 271
Atmospheric Science Online, 273
GEODE: Atmosphere, 273
10. Thunderstorms and Tornadoes, 274
What’s in A Name?, 276
Thunderstorms, 277
Air-Mass Thunderstorms, 278
Stages of Development, 279
Occurrence, 280
Severe Thunderstorms, 280
Supercell Thunderstorms, 281
Box 10–1 Atmospheric Hazard: Flash Floods—The Number One Thunderstorm Killer, 282
Squall Lines and Mesoscale Convective Complexes, 285
Microbursts, 287
Lightning and Thunder, 287
What Causes Lightning?, 288
The Lightning Stroke, 288
Thunder, 289
Box 10–2 Atmospheric Hazard: Lightning Safety, 290
Tornadoes, 291
Box 10–3 Atmospheric Hazard: Surviving a Violent Tornado, 292
The Development and Occurrence of Tornadoes, 293
Tornado Development, 294
Tornado Climatology, 295
Profile of a Tornado, 295
Tornado Destruction, 296
Tornado Forecasting, 298
Tornado Watches and Warnings, 299
Doppler Radar, 299
Box 10–4 Atmospheric Hazard: The April 1974 Super Tornado Outbreak, 300
Box 10–5 The Doppler Effect, 302
Chapter Summary, 303
Vocabulary Review, 305
Review Questions, 305
Problems, 306
Atmospheric Science Online, 307
11. Hurricanes, 308
Profile of A Hurricane, 310
Box 11–1 The Conservation of Angular Momentum, 314
Hurricane Formation and Decay, 314
Hurricane Formation, 315
Hurricane Decay, 316
Box 11–2 Naming Tropical Storms and Hurricanes, 317
Hurricane Destruction, 317
Saffir–Simpson Scale, 317
Storm Surge, 318
Wind Damage, 319
Heavy Rains and Inland Flooding, 320
Cyclone Nargis—May 2008, 320
Estimating the Intensity of a Hurricane, 321
Detecting, Tracking, and Monitoring Hurricanes, 322
The Role of Satellites, 322
Aircraft Reconnaissance, 323
Box 11–3 Atmospheric Hazard: Examining Hurricane Katrina from Space, 324
Radar and Data Buoys, 328
Hurricane Watches and Warnings, 329
Hurricane Forecasting, 329
Chapter Summary, 330
Vocabulary Review, 330
Review Questions, 331
Problems, 331
Atmospheric Science Online, 331
12. Weather Analysis and Forecasting, 332
The Weather Business: A Brief Overview, 335
Box 12–1 Atmospheric Hazard: Debris Flows in the San Francisco Bay Region, 336
Weather Analysis, 337
Gathering Data, 337
Weather Maps: Pictures of the Atmosphere, 338
Weather Forecasting, 338
Box 12–2 Constructing a Synoptic Weather Chart, 340
Numerical Weather Prediction: Forecasting by Computer, 340
Box 12–3 Numerical Weather Prediction, 342
Other Forecasting Methods, 343
Upper Airflow and Weather Forecasting, 345
Upper-Level Maps, 345
The Connection between Upper-Level Flow and Surface Weather, 347
Long-Range Forecasts, 349
Forecast Accuracy, 351
Box 12–4 Precipitation Probability Forecasts, 352
Satellites in Weather Forecasting, 354
What Weather Satellites Provide, 355
Satellite Measurements, 355
Box 12–5 What is “Normal”, 357
Chapter Summary, 357
Vocabulary Review, 358
Review Questions, 358
Problems, 359
Atmospheric Science Online, 361
13. Air Pollution, 362
A Brief Historical Perspective, 364
Air Pollution: Not a New Problem, 365
Some Historic Episodes, 366
Sources and Types of Air Pollution, 366
Primary Pollutants, 367
Box 13–1 Atmospheric Hazard: The Great Smog of 1952, 368
Box 13–2 Air Pollution Changes the Climate of Cities, 371
Secondary Pollutants, 372
Trends in Air Quality, 372
Box 13–3 Atmospheric Hazard: Volcanic Smog (VOG), 373
Indoor Air Pollution, 376
Meteorological Factors Affecting Air Pollution, 376
Wind As a Factor, 376
Box 13–4 Air Quality Index, 377
The Role of Atmospheric Stability, 377
Acid Precipitation, 379
Extent and Potency of Acid Precipitation, 380
Effects of Acid Precipitation, 381
Chapter Summary, 382
Vocabulary Review, 383
Review Questions, 383
Atmospheric Science Online, 383
14. The Changing Climate, 384
The Climate System, 385
How Is Climate Change Detected?, 385
Seafloor Sediment—A Storehouse of Climate Data, 387
Oxygen Isotope Analysis, 388
Box 14–1 Cryosphere—The World of Ice, 389
Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice, 390
Tree Rings—Archives of Environmental History, 390
Other Types of Proxy Data, 392
Natural Causes of Climate Change, 392
Plate Tectonics and Climate Change, 393
Volcanic Activity and Climate Change, 394
Orbital Variations, 396
Box 14–2 A Possible Link Between Volcanism and Climate Change in the Geologic Past, 396
Solar Variability and Climate, 398
Human Impact on Global Climate, 400
Carbon Dioxide, Trace Gases, and Climate Change, 400
CO₂ Levels Are Rising, 400
The Atmosphere’s Response, 401
Box 14–3 Computer Models of Climate: Important Yet Imperfect Tools, 402
The Role of Trace Gases, 403
Climate-Feedback Mechanisms, 405
How Aerosols Influence Climate, 406
Some Possible Consequences of Global Warming, 406
Sea-Level Rise, 407
The Changing Arctic, 408
Possible Regional Impacts, 409
The Potential for “Surprises”, 410
Chapter Summary, 412
Vocabulary Review, 412
Review Questions, 412
Atmospheric Science Online, 413
15. World Climates, 414
Climate Classification, 416
Climate Controls: A Summary, 418
Latitude, 418
Land and Water, 418
Geographic Position and Prevailing Winds, 418
Box 15–1 Climate Diagrams, 419
Mountains and Highlands, 419
Ocean Currents, 419
Pressure and Wind Systems, 419
World Climates—An Overview, 422
The Wet Tropics (Af, Am), 422
Temperature Characteristics, 423
Box 15–2 Clearing the Tropical Rain Forest—The Impact on its Soils, 424
Precipitation Characteristics, 425
Tropical Wet and Dry (Aw), 426
Temperature Characteristics, 426
Precipitation Characteristics, 427
The Monsoon, 428
The Cw Variant, 428
The Dry Climates (B), 428
What Is Meant by “Dry”?, 429
Subtropical Desert (BWh) and Steppe (BSh), 430
Box 15–3 The Disappearing Aral Sea—A Large Lake Becomes a Barren Wasteland, 432
West Coast Subtropical Deserts, 432
Middle-Latitude Desert (BWk) and Steppe (BSk), 434
Humid Middle-Latitude Climates with Mild Winters (C), 435
Humid Subtropical Climate (Cfa), 436
The Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb), 436
The Dry-Summer Subtropical (Mediterranean) Climate (Csa, Csb), 438
Humid Continental Climates with Severe Winters (D), 439
Humid Continental Climate (Dfa), 439
The Subarctic Climate (Dfc, Dfd), 441
The Polar Climates (E), 441
Box 15–4 Atmospheric Hazard: Understanding Drought, 442
The Tundra Climate (ET), 443
The Ice-Cap Climate (EF), 445
Highland Climates, 445
Chapter Summary, 448
Vocabulary Review, 450
Review Questions, 450
Problems, 452
Atmospheric Science Online, 453
16. Optical Phenomena of the Atmosphere, 454
Nature of Light, 456
Reflection, 456
Refraction, 457
Mirages, 458
Box 16–1 Are Highway Mirages Real?, 460
Rainbows, 460
Halos, Sun Dogs, and Solar Pillars, 463
The Glory, 465
The Corona, 465
Box 16–2 Iridescent Clouds, 466
Chapter Summary, 466
Vocabulary Review, 468
Review Questions, 468
Atmospheric Science Online, 469
Appendix A. Metric Units, 471
Appendix B. Explanation and Decoding of the Daily Weather Map, 474
Appendix C. Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Tables, 481
Appendix D. Laws Relating to Gases, 483
Appendix E. Newton's Laws in Motion, 484
Appendix F. Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, 485
Appendix G. Climate Data, 486
Glossary, 491
Index, 503

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