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Educational Psychology: Reflection for Action, 2nd Edition

by O'Donnell, Angela; Reeve, Johnmarshall, Univ. of Iowa; Smith, Jeffrey, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

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Copyright, vi
About the Authors, vii
Preface, ix
Acknowledgments, xix
Brief Contents, xxv
Contents, xxvii
1. Introducing Educational Psychology and Reflective Practice, 1
Reflection for Action, 1
Chapter Overview, 2
Educational Psychology, 2
Critical Thinking, 3
Educational Psychology as a Field of Scientific Study, 4
Uncommon Sense: Music Training Produces Math Whiz Kids—Or Does It?, 4
A Focus on Learning, 5
Teaching Expertise, 5
Concerns of Beginning Teachers, 6
Teaching Efficacy, 7
Metaphors for Teaching, 9
The Payoff: Enjoying Your Work, Having Societal Trust, 10
Reflective Teaching, 10
Uncommon Sense: You Learn To Teach By Teaching—Or Do You?, 11
Reflection for Action, 12
A Model of Reflective Teaching: RIDE, 13
Student Diversity and Students with Special Needs, 15
Diverse Learners, 17
Students with Special Needs, 17
What Kids Say and Do: Testing Children For Speech Articulation Difficulties, 18
Taking It To The Classroom: Providing Instruction For Students With Special Needs, 19
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Supporting Talent Development, 20
How Educational Psychologists Use Theories and Research, 20
What Is a Theory?, 20
Linking Theory and Practice, 21
Research Methods, 21
Narrowing the Gap between Research and Practice, 27
Taking It To The Classroom: Implementing Action Research In Your Classroom, 27
Summary, 28
Exercises, 29
2. Teachers and Teaching, 31
Reflection for Action, 31
Chapter Overview, 32
The Teaching Life, 32
What Is Teaching?, 33
Teacher Development, 35
Beliefs about Teaching and Learning, 35
Content Knowledge, Pedagogical Knowledge, and Pedagogical Content Knowledge, 36
Differences in Knowledge between Experts and Novices, 37
Taking It To The Classroom: Pedagogical Content Knowledge, 38
Online Teacher Communities, 39
Teachers’ Self-Efficacy, 40
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack: How Many Jacks are There?, 41
Uncommon Sense: Veteran Teachers are Not Nervous On The First Day of School—Or are They?, 41
Taking It To The Classroom: Self-Efficacy and Special Education Teachers, 42
Working in Culturally Different Contexts, 42
Planning, 43
Uncommon Sense: That’s True For Everyone—Or Is It?, 43
Instructional Goals, 44
Using Goals in Classroom Teaching, 46
Translating Goals into Plans, 46
Planning for Students with Special Needs, 51
Approaches to Teaching, 52
Promoting Meaningful Learning, 52
Discovery Learning, 53
Direct Instruction, 53
Aspects of Teaching, 54
Providing Explanations, 55
Assessing and Providing Feedback, 56
Uncommon Sense: Counterexamples Should Be Avoided—Or Should They?, 56
Taking It To The Classroom: Good Explanations, 57
Asking Questions, 58
Promoting Learning through Homework, 58
Benefits of Homework, 58
A Taxonomy of Homework, 59
Three Types of Homework, 59
Homework from the Primary to the Secondary Level: A Developmental Perspective, 60
Developing Homework Policies, 61
What Kids Say and Do: Developing Organizational Skills, 61
Homework and Students with Disabilities, 62
Taking It To The Classroom: The Class Homework Site, 62
Taking It To The Classroom: Homework Strategies For Students With Disabilities, 63
Homework: Cultural and Socioeconomic Differences, 63
Learning Out of School, 64
Learning in Cultural Institutions, 64
Learning in Libraries, 65
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Making The Most of A Visit, 66
Teaching with Cultural Institutions and Libraries, 66
Taking It To The Classroom: Getting Parents To Help, 67
What Kids Say and Do: Personal Connections In Museums, 67
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 68
Further Practice: Your Turn, 69
Summary, 70
Exercises, 72
Lesson Plans, 74
3. Cognitive Development, 77
Reflection for Action, 77
Chapter Overview, 78
Brain Development, 78
Brain Structure and Function, 78
How Experience (Education) Affects Brain Development, 80
Cognitive Development, 81
Adaptation and Schemas: Piaget’s Theory, 81
What Kids Say and Do: Two Children Solve The Flower Problem, 82
Stages in Cognitive Development, 84
Taking It To The Classroom: Ways To Enrich Concrete Operations, 89
Applications of Piaget’s Theory, 90
Taking It To The Classroom: Ways To Enrich Formal Operations, 91
Limitations of Piaget’s Theory, 92
Sociocognitive Development, 92
Cognitive Development as an Apprenticeship: Vygotsky’s Theory, 93
Scaffolding in the Zone of Proximal Development, 93
Instructional Conversations, 96
Role of Language, 97
Cultural Tools, 98
Importance of Peers, 98
Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory, 98
Which Theory Should Teachers Apply?, 99
Language Development, 100
How Language Develops, 100
Language Disabilities and Brain Functioning, 102
Technology Support for Young Readers and Students with Special Needs, 103
Taking It To The Classroom: Maximizing The Literacy-Enhancing Potential of Electronic Storybooks, 104
Bilingualism and Second-Language Acquisition, 105
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Helping Students Learn English, 106
Uncommon Sense: Non-English-Speaking Children Should Use Only English In The Classroom—Or Should They?, 107
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 108
Further Practice: Your Turn, 109
Summary, 110
Exercises, 111
Lesson Plans, 112
4. Social Development, 117
Reflection for Action, 117
Chapter Overview, 118
Relationships, 118
Mental Models—Self and Others, 119
Quality of Relationships, 120
Culture, Diversity, and Special Needs, 122
Trust: The Beginning of Positive Social Development, 123
Students’ Attachment Styles with Teachers, 124
Taking It To The Classroom: Am I A Supportive Teacher?, 125
Attachment for Learners with Special Needs, 125
Psychosocial Development, 125
Erikson’s Framework, 126
Taking It To The Classroom: Guidelines For Supporting Preschoolers’ Initiative, 127
Taking It To The Classroom: Guidelines For Supporting Elementary-Grade Children’s Competence, 129
Taking It To The Classroom: Guidelines For Supporting Adolescents’ Identity, 131
What Kids Say and Do: Adolescents Speak About Identity Status, 132
Moral Development, 132
Uncommon Sense: Healthy Development Requires High Trust, Initiative, Competence, Identity, and Generativity—Or Does It?, 132
Stages of Moral Development, 133
What Kids Say and Do: Moral Reasoning About Cheating, 134
The Ethic of Care, 135
Character and Conscience: Doing the Right Thing for the Right Reason, 136
Aggression and Social Competence, 138
Aggression, 138
Instrumental and Hostile Aggression, 138
Uncommon Sense: Boys are More Aggressive Than Girls—Or are They?, 138
What Kids Say and Do: A Constructive Response To Aggression, 140
Video Game Technology and Aggression, 140
Social Competence, 140
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Promoting Social Competence, 141
Taking It To The Classroom: Suggestions For Encouraging Empathy, 142
Self-Concept, 142
Who Am I?, 142
What Kids Say and Do: Three Students’ Answers To “Who Am I?”, 143
Enhancing the Self-Concept, 144
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 146
Further Practice: Your Turn, 147
Summary, 148
Exercises, 149
Lesson Plans, 150
5. Individual Differences and Special Needs, 153
Reflection for Action, 153
Chapter Overview, 154
Variability in the Classroom, 154
Intelligence, 155
The History of Intelligence, 155
Controversies in Intelligence, 157
Current Thinking on Issues of Intelligence, 157
How Is Intelligence Measured?, 160
What Kids Say and Do: Messages Received By Children, 163
Extremes of Intelligence, 163
Giftedness, 164
Mental Retardation, 164
Talent, 164
Deliberate Practice and the Monotonic-Benefits Assumption, 165
Effort Becomes Talent, 166
Early Talent and Developed Talent, 167
Uncommon Sense: Talent Is Innate—Or Is It?, 168
Differences in Ability and Instruction, 169
Between-Class Ability Grouping, 169
Within-Class Ability Grouping, 170
Learners with Special Needs, 170
The Law and Special Education, 170
Identifying Children with Special Needs, 171
Inclusion, 174
Prevalent Student Needs and Challenges, 175
Learning Disabilities, 175
Taking It To The Classroom: Strategies For The Inclusive Classroom, 176
Autism and Related Disorders, 176
Taking It To The Classroom: Strategies For The Inclusive Classroom, 177
Physical and Sensory Challenges, 178
Attention Deficit Disorder, 179
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, 179
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack, The Disorganized?, 180
English Language Learners, 182
Differences in Socioeconomic Status and Their Role in Learning, 184
Uncommon Sense: The Best Way To Learn A Language Is Through Total Immersion—Or Is It?, 184
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 186
Further Practice: Your Turn, 187
Summary, 188
Exercises, 190
Lesson Plans, 190
6. Behavioral Learning Theory, 193
Reflection for Action, 193
Chapter Overview, 194
Explaining Learning, 194
Behavioral, Cognitive, and Social Constructivist Theories of Learning, 195
Contrasting Three Theories of Learning, 195
Kinds of Learning That Can Be Explained by Behavioral Learning Theory, 196
Principles of Behavioral Learning Theory, 197
Types of Behavioral Learning Theories, 197
Operant Learning Theory, 198
Reinforcement, 198
Positive Reinforcers to Strengthen Behaviors, 198
Negative Reinforcers to Strengthen Behaviors, 199
Selecting Reinforcers, 200
Patterns of Reinforcement, 200
What Kids Say and Do: What We Find Reinforcing, 201
Punishment, 202
Positive Punishers to Suppress Behavior, 202
Negative Punishers to Suppress Behavior, 203
Taking It To The Classroom: Ways To Promote Good Behavior, 205
Can Punishment Be Used Effectively?, 205
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Ignoring Consequences, 205
Applied Behavior Analysis, 206
Managing Behavior, 206
Taking It To The Classroom: Guidelines For Applying Behavioral Learning Principles To Classroom Problems, 207
Behavioral Learning Theory and Diverse Learners, 207
Behavioral Learning Theory and Special Needs Students, 208
Increasing Desirable Behaviors, 208
What Kids Say and Do: Describing Caring Teachers, 208
Uncommon Sense: Praise Is Always Good—Or Is It?, 210
Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors, 211
Why Do Students Misbehave?, 212
Taking It To The Classroom: Preventing Behavioral Escalations, 213
Uncommon Sense: Zero-Tolerance Policies Solve Problems of Aggression and Violence—Or Do They?, 214
Promoting Self-Management, 215
The Fundamental Task of Classroom Management, 216
Contracts and Contingencies, 216
Taking It To The Classroom: Three Suggestions For Creating Opportunities For Students To Learn and Grow, 216
Influences of Behavioral Learning Theory on Instruction, 218
Mastery Learning, 218
Instructional Technology, 219
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 220
Further Practice: Your Turn, 221
Summary, 222
Exercises, 223
Lesson Plans, 224
7. Managing Learning in Classrooms, 227
Reflection for Action, 227
Chapter Overview, 228
Designing the Physical Environment, 228
The Influence of the Environment on Behavior, 229
Designing the Elementary School Classroom, 230
Taking It To The Classroom: Design Principles, 232
Designing the Middle or Secondary School Classroom, 232
Addressing Student Diversity and Special Needs through the Physical Environment, 234
Using Technology to Design Your Classroom, 234
What Kids Say and Do: A Painful Request, 234
Designing the Social Environment: Norms and Rules, 235
Taking It To The Classroom: Even The Brightest Kids . . ., 236
Taking It To The Classroom: When The World Impinges On The Classroom, 236
The Tension between Freedom and Structure, 237
Getting Started, 238
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? The Reluctant Misbehaver, 240
Establishing Procedures for Routines, 241
Misbehavior: Informal Correctives and Imposing Penalties, 242
Uncommon Sense: Kids Need To Be Brought Back On Task—Or Do They?, 244
Conclusions about Establishing Norms and Rules, 245
A Student-Centered Approach, 245
Managing Day-to-Day Classroom Instruction, 246
Independent Work or Seatwork, 246
Small-Group Work, 247
Whole-Class Instruction, 247
What Kids Say and Do: Helping Out, 249
What Kids Say and Do: The Power of Open-Ended Questions, 250
Special Needs, Diversity, and Instruction, 250
Dealing with Behavior Problems, 251
Chronic Problems, 251
Acute Problems, 252
Taking It To The Classroom: Tips For Creating A Peaceful Classroom, 253
Personal Problems, 253
Particular Problems, 254
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 256
Further Practice: Your Turn, 257
Summary, 258
Exercises, 259
Lesson Plans, 260
8. Cognitive and Social Cognitive Learning, 263
Reflection for Action, 263
Chapter Overview, 264
Cognitive Theories of Learning, 264
The Information-Processing Model, 265
Perception, 265
Attention, 268
Memory Systems, 270
Sensory Memory, 270
Short-Term Memory, 270
A Model of Working Memory, 271
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Solving Word Problems, 272
Memory Difficulties of Children with Special Needs, 273
Long-Term Memory, 273
Taking It To The Classroom: Supporting Working Memory In The Classroom, 274
What Kids Say and Do: Using A Script, 277
What Kids Say and Do: Using A Story Grammar For Aesop’s Fables, 277
Encoding, Retrieval, and Forgetting, 278
Types of Knowledge, 278
Organization, Practice, and Elaboration, 278
Mnemonic Strategies, 278
Imagery and Visual-Learning Strategies, 279
Taking It To The Classroom: Creating and Enhancing Visual Images From Text, 281
Retrieval and Forgetting, 281
Categorization, 282
Teaching Concepts, 283
Taking It To The Classroom: Principles of Multimedia Learning, 284
What Kids Say and Do: Focusing On A Single Attribute, 284
Diversity, Culture, and Experience in Developing Concepts and Categories, 285
What Kids Say and Do: What Pony?, 285
Social Learning Theory, 286
Modeling, 287
Taking It To The Classroom: Making Thinking Visible, 288
Conditions Necessary for Observational Learning, 289
Uncommon Sense: Social Learning Always Has Positive Outcomes—Or Does It?, 289
Modeling and TV Viewing, 290
Taking It To The Classroom: Social Learning Theory and Everyday Life, 291
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 292
Further Practice: Your Turn, 293
Summary, 294
Exercises, 295
Lesson Plans, 296
9. Complex Cognition and Social Constructivism, 299
Reflection for Action, 299
Chapter Overview, 300
Complex Cognition, 300
Metacognition, 300
Self-Explanation, 300
Taking It To The Classroom: Guiding Questions For Promoting Metacognitive Thinking, 301
Reasoning and Argumentation, 301
Problem Solving, 302
Transfer, 304
Complex Cognition and Social Constructivism, 305
The Role of Experience, 307
What Kids Say and Do: The Benefits of Technology?, 308
Scaffolding, 308
Scaffolding with Technology, 310
Scaffolding for Students with Special Needs, 314
Scaffolding for Students from Diverse Backgrounds, 315
Instruction Influenced by Social-Constructivist and Sociocultural Theory, 316
Cognitive Apprenticeships, 316
Reciprocal Teaching, 316
What Kids Say and Do: Understanding Apprenticeship, 317
Problem-Based Learning, 317
Classroom Communities, 319
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 320
Further Practice: Your Turn, 321
Summary, 322
Exercises, 323
Lesson Plans, 324
10. Learning from Peers, 327
Reflection for Action, 327
Chapter Overview, 328
Perspectives on Peer Learning, 328
Theoretical Orientations toward Learning from Peers, 329
The Social-Motivational Perspective, 329
Taking It To The Classroom: Implementing Stad, 330
The Social-Cohesion Perspective, 331
Are These Approaches Effective?, 333
What Kids Say and Do: Learning To Understand Group Processes, 334
Cognitive-Elaboration Perspectives, 335
Taking It To The Classroom: Implementing Scripted Cooperation, 335
Cognitive-Developmental Perspectives, 336
Tutoring, 340
Evidence for the Effectiveness of Tutoring, 340
Processes Involved in Tutoring, 341
Tutoring Diverse Learners, 342
Tutoring and Students with Special Needs, 345
Tutoring for Higher Order Outcomes, 346
Taking It To The Classroom: Guidelines For Effective Peer Tutoring Sessions, 346
Learning in Heterogeneous Groups, 347
Examples of Cooperative Techniques, 347
Collaboration and Technology, 349
WebQuests, 349
Taking It To The Classroom: Promoting Productive Interaction, 349
Online Mentoring, 350
Knowledge Forum, 350
Influences on Effectiveness in Heterogeneous Groups, 350
Gender and Cooperative Groups, 351
Race, Ethnicity, and Language, 351
Special Needs and Cooperative Learning, 352
Status Characteristics, 353
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Getting The Help He Needs, 353
Learning from Peers: Practices for Learning, 355
The Importance of Discourse Quality, 355
The Role of the Teacher, 356
Taking It To The Classroom: Management Issues To Consider, 358
Classroom Tasks, 358
Uncommon Sense: Out-of-School Group Projects are Always Cooperative—Or Are They?, 359
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 360
Further Practice: Your Turn, 361
Summary, 362
Exercises, 363
Lesson Plans, 364
11. Motivation and Engagement, 367
Reflection for Action, 367
Chapter Overview, 368
Engagement, 368
What Engagement Looks Like, 368
Why Engagement Is Important, 370
Motivation, 370
Two Approaches to Promoting Motivation and Engagement, 371
What Kids Say and Do: A Class Valedictorian Looks Back At The Quality of Her Motivation, 371
Engaging Diverse Learners, 373
What Kids Say and Do: What Unengaged Students Want Their Teachers To Know, 374
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, 374
Hidden Costs of Rewards, 375
Using Extrinsic Motivators Effectively, 376
How to Motivate Students with Mental Retardation: Intrinsically or Extrinsically?, 377
Taking It To The Classroom: Communicating Extrinsic Rewards In Controlling Versus Informational Ways, 377
Types of Extrinsic Motivation, 378
Psychological Needs, 379
Autonomy, 379
What Kids Say and Do: Types of Motivation, 379
Uncommon Sense: Giving Students Choices Increases Their Autonomy and Intrinsic Motivation—Or Does It?, 380
Taking It To The Classroom: How Autonomy-supportive Teachers Motivate Students, 381
Competence, 382
Relatedness, 384
The Engagement Model, 385
Motivating Students During Uninteresting Lessons, 386
Uncommon Sense: Using Rewards To Motivate Students Is A Good Strategy—Or Is It?, 387
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Dealing With Disengagement, 387
Curiosity, Interest, and Positive Affect, 388
Sparking Curiosity, 388
Building Interest, 389
Inducing Positive Affect, 390
Using Technology to Promote Engagement, 391
Calming Anxiety, Protecting Self-Worth, and Overcoming Fear of Failure, 392
Engagement-Draining Motivational Deficits, 393
Instructional Strategies to Ease Motivational Deficits, 394
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 396
Further Practice: Your Turn, 397
Summary, 398
Exercises, 399
Lesson Plans, 400
12. Motivation to Learn, 403
Reflection for Action, 403
Chapter Overview, 404
Motivation Rooted in Constructive Thinking, 404
Uncommon Sense: Boosting Self-Esteem Is The Best Way To Motivate Students—Or Is It?, 405
A Social-Cognitive Approach to Constructive Thinking, 406
Self-Efficacy, 406
Why Self-Efficacy Is Important, 406
What Kids Say and Do: Self-Efficacy and Avoidance, 406
Sources of Self-Efficacy, 408
Mastery Modeling Programs, 408
Taking It To The Classroom: How To Implement A Mastery Modeling Program, 409
Technology, Socioeconomic Status, and Self-Efficacy, 409
Self-Efficacy in Students with Learning Disabilities, 410
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Reversing Students’ Anxieties, 410
Mastery Beliefs, 411
Reactions to Failure, 411
Learned Helplessness, 412
Attributions, 412
Preventing Helplessness, Fostering Mastery, 414
Hope, 415
Goals, 416
Difficult, Specific Goals Increase Performance, 417
Implementation Intentions, 417
Feedback, 418
A Caution before Assigning Students a Goal to Pursue, 418
Goal-Setting Programs, 418
Taking It To The Classroom: Steps In A Goal-Setting Program, 419
Possible Selves, 419
Achievement Goals, 421
Taking It To The Classroom: Teacher Discourse To Promote Learning Goals, 424
What Kids Say and Do: Why High School Students Adopt Performance Goals, 424
Grade-Level Effects on Student Motivation, 425
Self-Regulation, 426
Self-Regulatory Processes: Forethought through Reflection, 426
Promoting Self-Regulation, 427
Coregulation, 428
Self-Regulation for Students in Different Grades and for Learners with Special Needs, 428
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 430
Further Practice: Your Turn, 431
Summary, 432
Exercises, 433
Lesson Plans, 434
13. Assessment for Learning, 437
Reflection for Action, 437
Chapter Overview, 438
Assessment for Learning: Roles, Goals, and Audiences, 438
Student, Parent, and Teacher Concerns in Assessment, 439
Other Audiences and Areas of Concern, 440
Diversity among Students and Their Parents, 440
Formative and Summative Assessment, 441
Principles of Assessment and Grading, 441
Communication, 442
Fairness, 442
Growth, 443
Options for Assessment, 444
Recognition Format, 444
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Multiple Choice Or Multiple Guess?, 446
Generative Format, 446
Alternative, or Production Format, 449
Taking It To The Classroom: Developing Alternative Assessments, 451
Informal Assessments, 453
Taking It To The Classroom: Biology Bucks, 454
Developing and Using Assessments, 454
Determining What to Assess, 454
Rubrics, 456
Determining the Best Assessment Format, 456
Assessing Students with Special Needs, 457
Administering, Scoring, and Communicating Assessment Results, 458
Uncommon Sense: Mistakes Are Bad—Or Are They?, 460
Taking It To The Classroom: Marking Student Papers: Being Objective, Specific, and Growth-Oriented, 460
Interpreting Classroom Assessments, 461
Comparing Performance with Expectations, 461
What Kids Say and Do: Points of Departure, 462
Taking It To The Classroom: Using A Stem-and-Leaf Diagram, 463
Reflecting on Assessments to Improve Them, 463
The Student Role in Assessment, 464
Developing a Grading System, 465
Options for Grading Systems, 465
Record Keeping for Grading, 467
Communicating with Parents, 468
Parent/Teacher Conferences, 469
Maintaining Communication, 470
Taking It To The Classroom: What Makes A Good Conference?, 470
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 472
Further Practice: Your Turn, 473
Summary, 474
Exercises, 475
Lesson Plans, 476
14. Standardized and Standards-Based Assessments, 479
Reflection for Action, 479
Chapter Overview, 480
The Nature and Development of Standardized Assessment, 480
A Brief History of Standardized Assessments, 481
School Testing Programs, 481
Standards-Based Assessment, 482
College Admissions Testing, 482
Intelligence Testing, 483
Selecting Standardized Assessments, 483
Uncommon Sense: Technology Advances Testing—Or Does It?, 484
Categories of Assessments, 484
Uncommon Sense: Aptitude Tests Predict Future Performance—Or Do They?, 485
Technical Issues in Assessment, 486
Statistics Used in Assessment, 486
Uncommon Sense: We Are All Rich!—Or Are We?, 487
Scales, 489
Taking It To The Classroom: Summary of Commonly Used Scores, 491
Norms and Equating, 492
Uncommon Sense: Marian Should Be In Seventh Grade—Or Should She?, 492
Setting Passing and Other Proficiency Scores, 493
Validity and Reliability, 495
Taking It To The Classroom: Setting Standards On Classroom Assessments, 496
Interpreting Standardized Assessments, 498
Finding the Child in the Data, 498
Demystifying the Assessment Report, 499
Combining Standardized Results with Other Information, 502
Taking It To The Classroom: Do You Know Jack? Test Taker Par Excellence, 502
Bringing the Child to the Classroom, 503
What Kids Say and Do: Making The Data Make Sense, 503
Thinking about the Classroom, School, and District Levels, 504
Looking at Scores for English Language Learners, 504
Looking at Scores for Students with Special Needs, 505
Controversies in Assessment, 506
Bias in Testing, 506
High-Stakes Testing and Its Implications, 506
Reflection for Action: RIDE, 508
Further Practice: Your Turn, 509
Summary, 510
Exercises, 511
Lesson Plans, 512
Appendix: Looking at the Praxis II^TM Principles of Learning and Teaching Assessment and the INTASC Principles, 514
Glossary, 524
References, 541
Name Index, 574
Subject Index, 582

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