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Discovering Physical Geography
by
Arbogast, Alan F., Michigan State University
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
Publishing Date: 2007/01/09
eText ISBN-10
0-470-37260-5
eText ISBN-13
978-0-470-37260-9
Print ISBN-10
0-471-43860-X
Print ISBN-13
978-0-471-43860-1
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Discovering Physical Geography
by
Arbogast, Alan F., Michigan State University
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Copyright, vi
About the Author, ix
Preface, xi
1. Introduction to Physic...
2. The Geographers' Tools...
3. Earth–Sun Geometry and...
4. The Global Energy Syst...
5. Global Temperature Pat...
6. Atmospheric Pressure, ...
7. Atmospheric Moisture a...
8. Air Masses and Cycloni...
9. Global Climates, 218
10. Plant Geography, 262
11. The Global Distributi...
12. Earth's Internal Stru...
13. Tectonic Processes an...
14. Weathering and Mass M...
15. Groundwater and Karst...
16. Fluvial Systems and L...
17. Glacial Geomorphology...
18. Arid Landscapes and E...
19. Coastal Processes and...
Glossary, 593
Photo Credits, 607
Index, 611
Table of Contents
Copyright, vi
About the Author, ix
Preface, xi
1. Introduction to Physical Geography, 2
THE SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY, 4
Defining Physical Geography, 5
The Earth's Four Spheres, 8
Organization of This Book, 11
Exploring Cause-and-Effect Relationships, 11
An Interactive Tool, 11
GEODISCOVERIES: Stream Meandering, 12
Focus on Geographical Literacy, 12
Physical Geography Is Interesting, Exciting, and Relevant to Your Life, 12
The Big Picture, 13
2. The Geographers' Tools, 14
The Geographic Grid, 16
Latitude, 17
Longitude, 20
Using the Geographic Grid, 22
GEODISCOVERIES: Using the Geographic Grid, 23
Maps—The Basic Tool of Geographers, 23
AMAZING PLACES: Big But Hard to Reach, 24
Map Projections, 26
Map Scale, 29
Isolines, 32
GEODISCOVERIES: Using Maps, 33
Digital Technology in Geography, 36
Remote Sensing, 36
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Infrared Images, 40
Global Positioning Systems, 40
Geographic Information Systems, 42
GEODISCOVERIES: Using a Geographic Information System, 43
The Big Picture, 44
3. Earth–Sun Geometry and the Seasons, 46
Our Place in Space, 48
The Shape of the Earth, 49
AMAZING PLACES: The Sun, 50
Earth's Orbit Around the Sun, 51
The Earth's Rotation and Axial Tilt, 52
The Seasons, 55
Solstice and Equinox, 56
GEODISCOVERIES: Orbital View and Earth as Viewed from the Sun, 58
How We See Earth–Sun Geometry on Earth, 60
Day and Night, 60
Seasonal Changes in Sun Position (Angle) and Length of Day, 60
GEODISCOVERIES: Celestial Dome, 62
GEODISCOVERIES: Sun Angle and Length of Day, 62
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Sunrise in the Southern Hemisphere, 63
The Big Picture, 64
4. The Global Energy System, 66
The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Solar Energy, 68
The Electromagnetic Spectrum, 68
GEODISCOVERIES: The Electromagnetic Spectrum, 70
Solar Energy and the Solar Constant, 70
Composition of the Atmosphere, 71
Constant Gases, 71
Variable Gases, 72
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: The Formation of Rainbows, 74
Particulates, 78
The Flow of Solar Radiation on Earth, 79
Heat Transfer, 79
Flow of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere, 81
Interaction of Solar Radiation and the Earth's Surface, 83
GEODISCOVERIES: The Angle of Incidence, 85
The Global Radiation Budget, 86
GEODISCOVERIES: The Global Energy Budget, 87
The Big Picture, 92
5. Global Temperature Patterns, 94
Layered Structure of the Atmosphere, 96
The Troposphere, 97
The Stratosphere, 97
The Mesosphere, 98
The Thermosphere, 98
Surface and Air Temperatures, 99
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Auroras, 100
Calculating the Heat Index and Wind Chill, 100
Large-Scale Geographic Factors That Influence Air Temperature, 101
AMAZING PLACES: Temperature Extremes on Earth, 104
Local Factors That Influence Air Temperature, 106
GEODISCOVERIES: Surface Temperature, 107
GEODISCOVERIES: Maritime vs. Continental Effect, 109
The Annual Range of Surface Temperature (Putting It All Together), 112
GEODISCOVERIES: Temperature and Location, 114
The Big Picture, 115
6. Atmospheric Pressure, Wind, and Global Circulation, 118
Atmospheric Pressure, 120
Factors That Influence Air Pressure, 120
Measuring and Mapping Air Pressure, 121
Atmospheric Pressure Systems, 123
Low-Pressure Systems, 123
High-Pressure Systems, 123
The Direction Of Air Flow, 125
Unequal Heating of Land Surfaces, 125
Pressure Gradient Force, 126
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Migrating Pressure Systems, 127
Coriolis Force, 128
GEODISCOVERIES: Fluctuations in the Pressure Gradient, 129
Frictional Forces, 130
GEODISCOVERIES: The Coriolis Force, 130
Global Pressure and Atmospheric Circulation, 132
Tropical Circulation, 134
Midlatitude Circulation, 136
Polar Circulation, 139
Seasonal Migration of Pressure Systems, 139
AMAZING PLACES: Mt. Washington, 140
GEODISCOVERIES: Global Atmospheric Circulation, 142
Local Wind Systems, 143
Land–Sea Breezes, 143
Topographic Winds, 144
Oceanic Circulation, 145
Gyres and Thermohaline Circulation, 145
El Niño, 148
GEODISCOVERIES: El Niño, 148
The Big Picture, 149
7. Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation, 152
Physical Properties of Water, 154
Hydrogen Bonding, 154
Thermal Properties of Water and Its Physical States, 155
GEODISCOVERIES: Latent Heat, 157
The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle, 157
Humidity, 159
Maximum, Specific, and Relative Humidity, 159
Dew-Point Temperature, 163
AMAZING PLACES: Death Valley, 164
GEODISCOVERIES: Atmospheric Humidity, 165
Evaporation, 167
Adiabatic Processes, 168
The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate, 168
The Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate, 169
GEODISCOVERIES: Adiabatic Processes, 170
Cloud Formation and Classification, 171
Fog, 172
Cloud Classification, 173
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Unusual Clouds, 176
Precipitation, 178
Types of Precipitation, 178
Precipitation Processes, 179
GEODISCOVERIES: Convectional Precipitation, 183
GEODISCOVERIES: Orographic Processes, 184
The Big Picture, 186
8. Air Masses and Cyclonic Weather Systems, 188
Air Masses and Fronts, 190
Air Masses, 190
Fronts, 192
Evolution and Character of Midlatitude Cyclones, 193
Upper Air Flow and the 500-mb Pressure Surface, 194
Interaction of Upper Air Flow and Surface Air Flow, 196
Cyclogenesis, 196
GEODISCOVERIES: Formation of a Midlatitude Cyclone, 199
GEODISCOVERIES: Migration of a Midlatitude Cyclone, 200
Thunderstorms, 201
Evolution of Thunderstorms, 201
Severe Thunderstorms, 201
Tornadoes, 205
AMAZING PLACES: Tornado Alley, 208
GEODISCOVERIES: Tornadoes, 208
Tropical Cyclones, 209
Hurricanes, 211
GEODISCOVERIES: Migration of Hurricane Katrina, 214
The Big Picture, 216
9. Global Climates, 218
Climate and the Factors That Affect It, 220
Köppen Climate Classification, 221
Geography of Köppen Climates, 225
Character and Geographic Distribution of Tropical (
A
) Climates, 225
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: The Relationship of Climate and Vegetation, 226
Character and Geographic Distribution of Arid and Semi-Arid (
B
) Climates, 228
GEODISCOVERIES: The Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw), 230
AMAZING PLACES: Atacama Desert, 234
Character and Geographic Distribution of Mesothermal (C) Climates, 235
GEODISCOVERIES: Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer Climates (Cfa, Cwa), 238
GEODISCOVERIES: Marine West-Coast Climates (Cfb, Cfc), 240
Character and Geographic Distribution of Microthermal (
D
) Climates, 240
Character and Geographic Distribution of Polar (
E
) Climates, 244
Character and Geographic Distribution of Highland (
H
) Climates, 246
GEODISCOVERIES: Remote Sensing and Climate, 248
Global Climate Change, 249
The Carbon Cycle, 249
Is Anthropogenic Climate Change Really Occurring?, 251
Predicting Future Climate Change, 256
The Big Picture, 260
10. Plant Geography, 262
The Process of Photosynthesis, 264
The Relationship of Climate and Vegetation: The Character and Distribution of Global Biomes, 266
Forest Biomes, 268
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Wildfires, 274
AMAZING PLACES: The Coastal Redwoods, 276
Grassland Biomes, 276
Desert Biomes, 278
Tundra Biome, 280
Local and Regional Factors That Influence the Geographic Distribution of Vegetation, 281
Slope and Aspect, 281
Vertical Zonation, 282
Plant Succession, 284
Riparian Zones, 285
GEODISCOVERIES: Plant Succession, 285
Human Influence on Vegetation Patterns, 286
Deforestation and Its Consequences, 286
Agriculture in the Midlatitude Grassland Biome, 288
Overgrazing, 288
GEODISCOVERIES: Deforestation, 289
GEODISCOVERIES: Remote Sensing and the Biosphere, 290
The Big Picture, 290
11. The Global Distribution and Character of Soils, 292
What Is Soil?, 294
Basic Soil Properties, 295
Soil-Forming (Pedogenic) Processes, 297
Soil-Forming Factors, 299
AMAZING PLACES: Buried Soils at the Eustis Ash Pit in Nebraska, 302
Measurable Soil Characteristics, 305
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Soil Conservation on Steep Slopes, 306
Soil Chemistry, 310
Soil pH, 310
Colloids and Cation Exchange, 311
Soil Profiles (Reading the Soil), 312
Time and Soil Evolution, 313
Soil Science and Classification, 315
The Twelve Soil Orders, 315
GEODISCOVERIES: African Climate, Vegetation, and Soils, 323
GEODISCOVERIES: Regional Pedogenic Processes, 330
GEODISCOVERIES: North American Climate, Vegetation, and Soils, 331
The Big Picture, 336
12. Earth's Internal Structure, Rock Cycle, and Geologic Time, 338
Earth's Inner Structure, 340
The Major Layers, 340
Rocks and Minerals In The Earth's Crust, 345
Igneous Rocks, 346
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Exposed Igneous Intrusions, 348
Sedimentary Rocks, 350
Metamorphic Rocks, 356
The Rock Cycle, 356
GEODISCOVERIES: The Rock Cycle, 357
Geologic Time, 357
GEODISCOVERIES: Geologic Time, 359
Telling Geologic Time, 360
Putting Geologic Time in Perspective, 360
Integrating Geologic Time and the Rock Cycle: The Spanish Peaks, 361
AMAZING PLACES: The Grand Canyon, 362
Basic Geomorphology of Continents and Ocean Basins, 365
Alpine Chains, 367
Continental Shields, 367
The Big Picture, 369
13. Tectonic Processes and Landforms, 372
Plate Tectonics, 374
The Lithospheric Plates, 374
Plate Movement, 375
Types of Plate Movement, 377
Passive Plate Margins, 377
GEODISCOVERIES: Continental Drift, 379
Transform Plate Margins, 380
Plate Divergence, 380
AMAZING PLACES: Olduvai Gorge, 382
Plate Convergence, 382
GEODISCOVERIES: Folding, 388
GEODISCOVERIES: Plate Tectonics, 390
Earthquakes, 390
Earthquake Processes, 390
Locating the Epicenter, 391
Measuring Earthquake Magnitude, 391
Types of Faults, 392
GEODISCOVERIES: Types of Faults, 397
Volcanoes, 398
Explosive Volcanoes, 398
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Crater Lake, 402
Fluid Volcanoes and Hotspots, 402
GEODISCOVERIES: Volcanoes, 407
The Big Picture, 408
14. Weathering and Mass Movement, 410
Weathering, 412
Mechanical Weathering, 412
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: The Long-Term Effects of Weathering and Erosion on Mountains, 414
AMAZING PLACES: Anasazi Cliff Dwellings, 418
Chemical Weathering, 418
GEODISCOVERIES: Weathering, 423
Mass Wasting, 424
Rockfall, 425
Soil Creep, 426
Landslides, 427
Flows, 429
Avalanches, 429
GEODISCOVERIES: Weathering and Mass Movements, 431
The Big Picture, 432
15. Groundwater and Karst Landscapes, 434
Movement and Storage of Groundwater, 436
The High Plains Aquifer, 438
Subsidence, 443
AMAZING PLACES: Oases in the Sahara Desert, 444
Groundwater Contamination, 444
GEODISCOVERIES: Hydrologic Cycle and Groundwater, 447
Karst Landforms and Landscapes, 447
Caves and Caverns, 448
Karst Topography, 449
AMAZING PLACES: Tower Karst in China, 450
The Big Picture, 452
16. Fluvial Systems and Landforms, 454
Overland Flow and Drainage Basins, 456
Origin of Streams, 457
Drainage Basins, 458
Drainage Patterns, Density, and Stream Ordering, 460
GEODISCOVERIES: The Rhine River, 462
Hydraulic Geometry and Channel Flow, 462
Stream Discharge, 463
Fluvial Processes and Landforms, 467
Erosion and Deposition, 467
Stream Gradation, 469
AMAZING PLACES: Waterfalls, 472
GEODISCOVERIES: The Graded Stream, 474
Evolution of Stream Valleys and Floodplains, 474
GEODISCOVERIES: Stream Meandering, 477
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Mississippi River Meanders, 478
Other Depositional Landforms Associated with Streams, 482
Human Interactions with Streams, 487
Urbanization, 487
Artificial Levees, 488
Dams and Reservoirs, 489
The Big Picture, 492
17. Glacial Geomorphology: Processes and Landforms, 494
Development of a Glacier, 496
The Metamorphosis of Snow to Glacial Ice, 496
The Glacial Mass Budget, 497
Glacial Movement, 498
Types of Glaciers, 501
Glaciers in Mountainous Regions, 501
AMAZING PLACES: The Vatnajökull Ice Cap, 503
Continental Glaciers, 505
Glacial Landforms, 506
Landforms Made by Glacial Erosion, 506
Deposition of Glacial Drift and Resulting Landforms, 511
History of Glaciation, 516
How Many Pleistocene Glaciations Were There?, 517
The Wisconsin Glaciation and the Evolution of the Great Lakes, 520
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: The Channeled Scablands in Eastern Washington, 522
What Causes Glaciation?, 524
Glacial Periods and Earth–Sun Geometry, 524
GEODISCOVERIES: The Milankovitch Theory, 526
Impact of Global Climate Change on Glaciers, 526
Periglacial Processes and Landscapes, 528
Permafrost, 528
Ground Ice and Associated Landforms, 531
The Big Picture, 532
18. Arid Landscapes and Eolian Processes, 534
Arid Landscapes, 536
Desert Geomorphology, 537
Eolian Erosion and Transport, 540
The Fluid Behavior of Wind and Sediment Transport, 540
Eolian Erosional Landforms, 541
Eolian Deposition and Landforms, 544
How Sand Dunes Form, 544
Types of Sand Dunes, 545
AMAZING PLACES: Great Sand Dunes National Monument, 548
Loess, 548
GEODISCOVERIES: Eolian Processes and Landforms, 550
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Sand Dunes on Mars, 551
Human Interactions with Eolian Processes, 553
Desertification in the African Sahel, 553
Desertification in the Great Plains of the United States: The Dust Bowl, 555
The Big Picture, 558
19. Coastal Processes and Landforms, 560
Oceans and Seas on the Earth, 562
The Nature of Coastlines: Intersection of Earth's Spheres, 563
Processes That Shape the Coastline, 564
AMAZING PLACES: Big Waves in Hawaii, 572
Coastal Landforms, 574
Erosional Coastlines, 574
WHAT A GEOGRAPHER SEES: Marine Terraces on San Clemente Island, California, 577
Depositional Coastlines, 578
GEODISCOVERIES: Longshore Processes and Depositional Coastlines, 582
Human Imapcts on Coastlines, 586
Coastal Engineering, 586
Global Climate Change and the Impact on Coastlines, 588
Glossary, 593
Photo Credits, 607
Index, 611
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