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Fundamentals of Microelectronics
by
Razavi, Behzad, UCLA
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
Publishing Date: 2008/01/28
eText ISBN-10
0-470-28382-3
eText ISBN-13
978-0-470-28382-0
Print ISBN-10
0-471-47846-6
Print ISBN-13
978-0-471-47846-1
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Fundamentals of Microelectronics
by
Razavi, Behzad, UCLA
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Copyright, iv
Preface, vi
1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROE...
2. BASIC PHYSICS OF SEMIC...
3. DIODE MODELS AND CIRCU...
4. PHYSICS OF BIPOLAR TRA...
5. BIPOLAR AMPLIFIERS, 18...
6. PHYSICS OF MOS TRANSIS...
7. CMOS AMPLIFIERS, 329
8. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER ...
9. CASCODE STAGES AND CUR...
10. DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIE...
11. FREQUENCY RESPONSE, 5...
12. FEEDBACK, 610
13. OUTPUT STAGES AND POW...
14. ANALOG FILTERS, 731
15. DIGITAL CMOS CIRCUITS...
16. CMOS AMPLIFIERS
*
, 829
Appendix A. INTRODUCTION ...
Index, 929
Table of Contents
Copyright, iv
Preface, vi
1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROELECTRONICS, 1
1.1. Electronics versus Microelectronics, 1
1.2. Examples of Electronic Systems, 2
1.2.1. Cellular Telephone, 2
1.2.2. Digital Camera, 5
1.2.3. Analog Versus Digital, 7
1.3. Basic Concepts, 8
1.3.1. Analog and Digital Signals, 8
1.3.2. Analog Circuits, 10
1.3.3. Digital Circuits, 11
1.3.4. Basic Circuit Theorems, 13
1.4. Chapter Summary, 20
2. BASIC PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS, 21
2.1. Semiconductor Materials and Their Properties, 22
2.1.1. Charge Carriers in Solids, 22
2.1.2. Modification of Carrier Densities, 25
2.1.3. Transport of Carriers, 28
2.2.
pn
Junction, 36
2.2.1.
pn
Junction in Equilibrium, 37
2.2.2.
pn
Junction Under Reverse Bias, 42
2.2.3.
pn
Junction Under Forward Bias, 46
2.2.4. I/V Characteristics, 49
2.3. Reverse Breakdown, 54
2.3.1. Zener Breakdown, 54
2.3.2. Avalanche Breakdown, 55
2.4. Chapter Summary, 55
Problems, 56
SPICE Problems, 60
3. DIODE MODELS AND CIRCUITS, 62
3.1. Ideal Diode, 62
3.1.1. Initial Thoughts, 62
3.1.2. Ideal Diode, 64
3.1.3. Application Examples, 68
3.2.
pn
Junction as a Diode, 73
3.3. Additional Examples, 75
3.4. Large-Signal and Small-Signal Operation, 80
3.5. Applications of Diodes, 89
3.5.1. Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers, 89
3.5.2. Voltage Regulation, 102
3.5.3. Limiting Circuits, 104
3.5.4. Voltage Doublers, 108
3.5.5. Diodes as Level Shifters and Switches, 112
3.6. Chapter Summary, 115
Problems, 116
SPICE Problems, 126
4. PHYSICS OF BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS, 128
4.1. General Considerations, 128
4.2. Structure of Bipolar Transistor, 130
4.3. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode, 131
4.3.1. Collector Current, 134
4.3.2. Base and Emitter Currents, 137
4.4. Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics, 139
4.4.1. Large-Signal Model, 139
4.4.2. I/V Characteristics, 141
4.4.3. Concept of Transconductance, 143
4.4.4. Small-Signal Model, 145
4.4.5. Early Effect, 150
4.5. Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode, 156
4.6. The
PNP
Transistor, 159
4.6.1. Structure and Operation, 160
4.6.2. Large-Signal Model, 160
4.6.3. Small-Signal Model, 163
4.7. Chapter Summary, 167
Problems, 167
SPICE Problems, 178
5. BIPOLAR AMPLIFIERS, 181
5.1. General Considerations, 181
5.1.1. Input and Output Impedances, 182
5.1.2. Biasing, 186
5.1.3. DC and Small-Signal Analysis, 186
5.2. Operating Point Analysis and Design, 188
5.2.1. Simple Biasing, 189
5.2.2. Resistive Divider Biasing, 192
5.2.3. Biasing with Emitter Degeneration, 195
5.2.4. Self-Biased Stage, 199
5.2.5. Biasing of
PNP
Transistors, 202
5.3. Bipolar Amplifier Topologies, 206
5.3.1. Common-Emitter Topology, 207
5.3.2. Common-Base Topology, 233
5.3.3. Emitter Follower, 250
5.4. Summary and Additional Examples, 258
5.5. Chapter Summary, 264
Problems, 264
SPICE Problems, 285
6. PHYSICS OF MOS TRANSISTORS, 288
6.1. Structure of MOSFET, 288
6.2. Operation of MOSFET, 291
6.2.1. Qualitative Analysis, 291
6.2.2. Derivation of I/V Characteristics, 297
6.2.3. Channel-Length Modulation, 306
6.2.4. MOS Transconductance, 308
6.2.5. Velocity Saturation, 310
6.2.6. Other Second-Order Effects, 310
6.3. MOS Device Models, 311
6.3.1. Large-Signal Model, 311
6.3.2. Small-Signal Model, 313
6.4. PMOS Transistor, 314
6.5. CMOS Technology, 316
6.6. Comparison of Bipolar and MOS Devices, 317
6.7. Chapter Summary, 317
Problems, 318
SPICE Problems, 327
7. CMOS AMPLIFIERS, 329
7.1. General Considerations, 329
7.1.1. MOS Amplifier Topologies, 329
7.1.2. Biasing, 329
7.1.3. Realization of Current Sources, 333
7.2. Common-Source Stage, 334
7.2.1. CS Core, 334
7.2.2. CS Stage With Current-Source Load, 337
7.2.3. CS Stage With Diode-Connected Load, 338
7.2.4. CS Stage With Degeneration, 340
7.2.5. CS Core With Biasing, 343
7.3. Common-Gate Stage, 345
7.3.1. CG Stage With Biasing, 350
7.4. Source Follower, 351
7.4.1. Source Follower Core, 352
7.4.2. Source Follower With Biasing, 354
7.5. Summary and Additional Examples, 356
7.6. Chapter Summary, 360
Problems, 360
SPICE Problems, 378
8. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS A BLACK BOX, 380
8.1. General Considerations, 381
8.2. Op-Amp-Based Circuits, 383
8.2.1. Noninverting Amplifier, 383
8.2.2. Inverting Amplifier, 385
8.2.3. Integrator and Differentiator, 388
8.2.4. Voltage Adder, 395
8.3. Nonlinear Functions, 396
8.3.1. Precision Rectifier, 396
8.3.2. Logarithmic Amplifier, 397
8.3.3. Square-Root Amplifier, 398
8.4. Op Amp Nonidealities, 399
8.4.1. DC Offsets, 399
8.4.2. Input Bias Current, 402
8.4.3. Speed Limitations, 405
8.4.4. Finite Input and Output Impedances, 410
8.5. Design Examples, 411
8.6. Chapter Summary, 413
Problems, 414
SPICE Problems, 423
9. CASCODE STAGES AND CURRENT MIRRORS, 425
9.1. Cascode Stage, 425
9.1.1. Cascode as a Current Source, 425
9.1.2. Cascode as an Amplifier, 432
9.2. Current Mirrors, 441
9.2.1. Initial Thoughts, 441
9.2.2. Bipolar Current Mirror, 442
9.2.3. MOS Current Mirror, 451
9.3. Chapter Summary, 454
Problems, 455
SPICE Problems, 470
10. DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS, 473
10.1. General Considerations, 473
10.1.1. Initial Thoughts, 473
10.1.2. Differential Signals, 475
10.1.3. Differential Pair, 478
10.2. Bipolar Differential Pair, 479
10.2.1. Qualitative Analysis, 479
10.2.2. Large-Signal Analysis, 484
10.2.3. Small-Signal Analysis, 488
10.3. MOS Differential Pair, 494
10.3.1. Qualitative Analysis, 495
10.3.2. Large-Signal Analysis, 499
10.3.3. Small-Signal Analysis, 503
10.4. Cascode Differential Amplifiers, 507
10.5. Common-Mode Rejection, 511
10.6. Differential Pair with Active Load, 515
10.6.1. Qualitative Analysis, 516
10.6.2. Quantitative Analysis, 518
10.7. Chapter Summary, 523
Problems, 524
SPICE Problems, 541
11. FREQUENCY RESPONSE, 544
11.1. Fundamental Concepts, 544
11.1.1. General Considerations, 544
11.1.2. Relationship Between Transfer Function and Frequency Response, 547
11.1.3. Bode’s Rules, 550
11.1.4. Association of Poles with Nodes, 551
11.1.5. Miller’s Theorem, 553
11.1.6. General Frequency Response, 556
11.2. High-Frequency Models of Transistors, 559
11.2.1. High-Frequency Model of Bipolar Transistor, 559
11.2.2. High-Frequency Model of MOSFET, 561
11.2.3. Transit Frequency, 563
11.3. Analysis Procedure, 564
11.4. Frequency Response of CE and CS Stages, 565
11.4.1. Low-Frequency Response, 565
11.4.2. High-Frequency Response, 566
11.4.3. Use of Miller’s Theorem, 566
11.4.4. Direct Analysis, 569
11.4.5. Input Impedance, 572
11.5. Frequency Response of CB and CG Stages, 573
11.5.1. Low-Frequency Response, 573
11.5.2. High-Frequency Response, 574
11.6. Frequency Response of Followers, 576
11.6.1. Input and Output Impedances, 580
11.7. Frequency Response of Cascode Stage, 583
11.7.1. Input and Output Impedances, 587
11.8. Frequency Response of Differential Pairs, 588
11.8.1. Common-Mode Frequency Response, 590
11.9. Additional Examples, 591
11.10. Chapter Summary, 595
Problems, 596
SPICE Problems, 607
12. FEEDBACK, 610
12.1. General Considerations, 610
12.1.1. Loop Gain, 613
12.2. Properties of Negative Feedback, 614
12.2.1. Gain Desensitization, 614
12.2.2. Bandwidth Extension, 616
12.2.3. Modification of I/O Impedances, 618
12.2.4. Linearity Improvement, 622
12.3. Types of Amplifiers, 622
12.3.1. Simple Amplifier Models, 623
12.3.2. Examples of Amplifier Types, 624
12.4. Sense and Return Techniques, 626
12.5. Polarity of Feedback, 629
12.6. Feedback Topologies, 631
12.6.1. Voltage-Voltage Feedback, 631
12.6.2. Voltage-Current Feedback, 636
12.6.3. Current-Voltage Feedback, 639
12.6.4. Current-Current Feedback, 644
12.7. Effect of Nonideal I/O Impedances, 647
12.7.1. Inclusion of I/O Effects, 648
12.8. Stability in Feedback Systems, 660
12.8.1. Review of Bode’s Rules, 660
12.8.2. Problem of Instability, 662
12.8.3. Stability Condition, 665
12.8.4. Phase Margin, 668
12.8.5. Frequency Compensation, 670
12.8.6. Miller Compensation, 673
12.9. Chapter Summary, 674
Problems, 675
SPICE Problems, 691
13. OUTPUT STAGES AND POWER AMPLIFIERS, 694
13.1. General Considerations, 694
13.2. Emitter Follower as Power Amplifier, 695
13.3. Push-Pull Stage, 698
13.4. Improved Push-Pull Stage, 701
13.4.1. Reduction of Crossover Distortion, 701
13.4.2. Addition of CE Stage, 705
13.5. Large-Signal Considerations, 708
13.5.1. Biasing Issues, 708
13.5.2. Omission of PNP Power Transistor, 709
13.5.3. High-Fidelity Design, 712
13.6. Short-Circuit Protection, 713
13.7. Heat Dissipation, 713
13.7.1. Emitter Follower Power Rating, 714
13.7.2. Push-Pull Stage Power Rating, 715
13.7.3. Thermal Runaway, 716
13.8. Efficiency, 718
13.8.1. Efficiency of Emitter Follower, 718
13.8.2. Efficiency of Push-Pull Stage, 719
13.9. Power Amplifier Classes, 720
13.10. Chapter Summary, 721
Problems, 722
SPICE Problems, 728
14. ANALOG FILTERS, 731
14.1. General Considerations, 731
14.1.1. Filter Characteristics, 732
14.1.2. Classification of Filters, 733
14.1.3. Filter Transfer Function, 737
14.1.4. Problem of Sensitivity, 740
14.2. First-Order Filters, 741
14.3. Second-Order Filters, 744
14.3.1. Special Cases, 744
14.3.2. RLC Realizations, 748
14.4. Active Filters, 753
14.4.1. Sallen and Key Filter, 753
14.4.2. Integrator-Based Biquads, 758
14.4.3. Biquads Using Simulated Inductors, 762
14.5. Approximation of Filter Response, 768
14.5.1. Butterworth Response, 768
14.5.2. Chebyshev Response, 772
14.6. Chapter Summary, 777
Problems, 778
SPICE Problems, 784
15. DIGITAL CMOS CIRCUITS, 786
15.1. General Considerations, 786
15.1.1. Static Characterization of Gates, 787
15.1.2. Dynamic Characterization of Gates, 794
15.1.3. Power-Speed Trade-Off, 797
15.2. CMOS Inverter, 799
15.2.1. Initial Thoughts, 799
15.2.2. Voltage Transfer Characteristic, 801
15.2.3. Dynamic Characteristics, 807
15.2.4. Power Dissipation, 812
15.3. CMOS NOR and NAND Gates, 816
15.3.1. NOR Gate, 816
15.3.2. NAND Gate, 819
15.4. Chapter Summary, 820
Problems, 821
SPICE Problems, 827
16. CMOS AMPLIFIERS
*
, 829
16.1. General Considerations, 829
16.1.1. Input and Output Impedances, 830
16.1.2. Biasing, 834
16.1.3. DC and Small-Signal Analysis, 835
16.2. Operating Point Analysis and Design, 836
16.2.1. Simple Biasing, 838
16.2.2. Biasing with Source Degeneration, 840
16.2.3. Self-Biased Stage, 843
16.2.4. Biasing of PMOS Transistors, 844
16.2.5. Realization of Current Sources, 845
16.3. CMOS Amplifier Topologies, 846
16.4. Common-Source Topology, 847
16.4.1. CS Stage with Current-Source Load, 852
16.4.2. CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load, 853
16.4.3. CS Stage with Source Degeneration, 854
16.4.4. Common-Gate Topology, 866
16.4.5. Source Follower, 877
16.5. Additional Examples, 883
16.6. Chapter Summary, 887
Problems, 888
SPICE Problems, 906
Appendix A. INTRODUCTION TO SPICE, 909
Index, 929
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