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Copyright, iv
Brief Contents, vi
Contents, vii
PREFACE, xvii
ABOUT THE AUTHOR, xxi
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION: SITUATIONS AND MOTIVES, ADAPTATION AND CULTURE, 1
What Is Social Psychology?, 1
A Classic Definition, 4
Levels of Analysis, 5
Situationism, 6
The Major Intellectual Contribution of Social Psychology, 7
Situations versus Personalities, 9
The Power of Situations as an Evolutionary Adaptation, 10
Summary, 13
Core Social Motives, 14
Five Unifying Themes in Social Psychology, 14
Belonging, 16
Understanding, 17
Controlling, 19
Enhancing Self, 22
Trusting, 23
Summary, 24
Culture and the Core Social Motives, 25
Summary, 28
Key Features of Social Psychology’s Approach, 28
Broad Scope, 30
Cultural Mandate, 31
Scientific Methods, 32
Search for Wisdom, 33
Chapter Summary, 33
Suggestions for Further Reading, 33
Chapter 2. SCIENTIFIC METHODS FOR STUDYING PEOPLE IN INTERACTION, 35
Forming Hypotheses: Conceptualization, 36
Application as a Source of Hypotheses, 36
Theory as a Source of Hypotheses, 38
Hypotheses, 40
Variables, 41
Summary, 42
Testing Hypotheses: Operationalization, 42
Conceptual Variables, 43
Operational Variables, 43
Levels of a Variable, 44
Scientific Standards, 46
From Concept to Operation: Some Examples, 49
Summary, 51
Choosing a Research Strategy, 51
Descriptive Research, 52
Correlational Research, 55
Experimental Research, 62
Methodological Challenges in Social Settings, 71
Expectancy Effects and Motives to Belong, 72
Participant Construal and Motives to Understand, 72
Demand Characteristics and Motives to Control, 73
Social Desirability and Motives to Self-Enhance, 73
Positivity Biases and Motives to Trust, 74
Ethics in Research, 74
Ethical Dilemmas, 75
Ethical Decisions, 76
Summary, 76
Chapter Summary, 76
Suggestions for Further Reading, 77
Chapter 3. ORDINARY PERSONOLOGY: FIGURING OUT WHY PEOPLE DO WHAT THEY DO, 79
What Is Ordinary Personology?, 81
Conceptual Definition, 81
Operational Definitions, 86
Core Social Motives, 87
Summary, 89
Nonverbal Behavior: Understanding Feelings, 89
Conceptual Definition, 89
Proxemics, 91
Deception, 92
Attraction, 93
Summary, 94
Attribution of Dispositions: Understanding Traits, 95
Heider’s Attribution Theory: The Naïve Psychology of Traits, 95
Inferring Traits from Other People’s Behaviors, 99
Inferring Dispositions from Our Own Behavior, 106
Summary of Dispositional Attribution Theories, 110
Errors and Biases in Attribution: Controlling and Self-Enhancing, 111
Believing Someone Is in Control: Ignoring the Hidden Power of Situations, 112
Explaining the Dispositional Bias in Attributions, 114
Self-Enhancing Attributions: Feeling Good by Credit and Blame, 117
Normative and Descriptive Models, 119
Chapter Summary, 119
Suggestions for Further Reading, 120
Chapter 4. SOCIAL COGNITION: MAKING SENSE OF OTHERS, 121
What Is Social Cognition?, 122
Conceptual Definition, 122
Operational Definition, 122
Core Social Motives, 123
Summary, 127
Accuracy: People Seek Good-Enough Understanding, 128
Accuracy of Impressions, 128
Inferences and Heuristics, 132
Summary, 142
Schemas and Expectations: People Understand and Trust the Familiar, 142
Impression Formation before Schemas: A Tale of Two Theories, 143
Origins of the Schema Concept in Other Domains of Psychology, 146
Kinds of Social Schemas, 147
Uses of Social Schemas, 152
Schema Development and Change, 155
Mental Representation of Specific Experience, 156
Summary, 156
Goals, Automaticity, and Control: People Can’t Always Control What They Think, 157
Automaticity, the New Unconscious, 158
Goals that Prompt Automaticity and Control, 164
Chapter Summary, 166
Suggestions for Further Reading, 167
Chapter 5. THE SELF: SOCIAL TO THE CORE, 169
What Is the Self?, 169
Conceptual Definitions, 171
Operational Definitions, 172
Core Social Motives, 174
Summary, 176
Self-Concepts: Understanding the Self, 177
The Rich, Elaborate, Complex Self: The Self Is Not a Bowling Ball, 178
The Coherent Self: The Self Is Not Just Scattered Bowling Pins, 181
How People Get to Know Themselves, 183
Self-Enhancement versus Self-Verification, 187
Cultural Differences: Interdependent and Independent Self-Concepts, 189
Summary, 196
Self and Emotion: Enhancing the Self, 196
Biases in Self-Esteem, 196
Self-Discrepancy Theory, 199
Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory, 202
Affective Forecasting, 203
Summary, 204
Self and Behavior: Wanting to Belong, 204
Self-Presentation Contexts, 205
Strategic Self-Presentation, 206
Self-Monitoring, 210
Self-Regulation, 212
Chapter Summary, 213
Suggestions for Further Reading, 214
Chapter 6. ATTITUDES AND PERSUASION: CHANGING MINDS, 215
What Are Attitudes? The Importance of Being Persuasive, 216
Conceptual Definitions, 216
Operational Definitions, 218
Core Social Motives as Functions of Attitudes, 221
Summary, 225
How Attitudes Form via Affect First: Understanding What to Approach or Avoid, 225
Learning Theories, 226
Mere Exposure, 228
Affect versus Cognition, 229
Summary, 230
Attitude Change via Discomfort with Contradiction: Understanding as Cognitive Consistency, 231
Theories of Cognitive Consistency, 231
Dissonance Theory, 232
Summary, 236
Attitude Change via Understanding Persuasive Communication, 237
Yale Communication and Persuasion Approach, 237
Dual-Process Persuasion Models, 239
Summary, 243
When and Why Attitudes Matter: Predicting Behavior via Understanding and Belonging, 244
Attitudes Don’t Always Predict Behavior, 244
When Attitudes Do Predict Behavior, 246
Summary, 250
Chapter Summary, 250
Suggestions for Further Reading, 252
Chapter 7. ATTRACTION: INITIATING ROMANCE, FRIENDSHIP, AND OTHER RELATIONSHIPS, 253
Attraction in Daily Life and in Science, 254
Conceptual Definitions, 254
Operational Definitions, 254
Core Social Motives, 256
Summary, 257
Familiarity: Liking Those We Know (and Understand), 257
Mere Exposure, 258
Proximity, 258
Summary, 260
Physical Attractiveness: Liking Those Who Look Good (and Enhance Us), 260
Images of Attractive People, 261
Functions of Physical Attractiveness Stereotypes, 261
Qualifications of Physical Attractiveness Effects, 262
Linking Physical Attractiveness to Other Principles, 263
Similarity: Liking Those Like Us (Understandable and Enhancing), 264
Balancing Friends and Attitudes, 264
Becoming a Unit, 266
Complementarity in Attraction, 267
Explaining the Similarity-Attraction Principle, 268
Summary, 269
Reciprocity: Liking Those Who Like (and Enhance) Us, 270
Direct Reciprocity, 270
Reciprocal Liking via Good Moods, 271
Reciprocal Liking via Rewards, 272
Exception to Reciprocity? Evoking Dissonance and Playing Hard to Get, 272
Reciprocity via Sex or Resources: Who Reciprocates What?, 273
Summary, 276
Chapter Summary, 276
Suggested Readings, 277
Chapter 8. CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS: PASSION, INTERDEPENDENCE, COMMITMENT, AND INTIMACY, 279
What Is a Close Relationship?, 279
Conceptual Definitions, 280
Operational Definitions, 285
Variations: Love, Family, and Friendship across Age and Culture, 288
Core Social Motives, 291
Summary, 292
Interdependence: Controlling and Trusting, 292
Interdependence, Control, and Emotion, 292
Commitment and Accommodation, 298
(Mis)handling Conflict, 301
Summary, 303
Attachment: Belonging and Trusting, 303
Theoretical Background, 304
Styles of Belonging: Attachment Models and Relationships, 305
Evolutionary Perspectives on Attachment, 308
Summary, 309
Social Norms: Belonging and Understanding, 309
Equity and Exchange, 309
Communal and Exchange Relationships, 310
Relational Models Theory, 310
Summary, 311
Chapter Summary, 312
Suggestions for Further Reading, 313
Chapter 9. HELPING: PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR, 315
What Is Prosocial Behavior?, 315
Conceptual Definitions, 316
Operational Definitions, 316
Core Social Motives, 320
Summary, 322
Egoism Hypotheses: Purely Self-Enhancing and Controlling, 322
Kin Selection, 323
Social Learning, 325
Mood Protection, 328
Summary, 334
Altruism Hypotheses: Maintaining Trust in the World as Benevolent, 335
Attributions of Responsibility, 335
Empathy, Sympathy, and Altruism, 339
Summary, 344
Collectivism: Maintaining Group Belonging, 345
Similarity and Group Identity, 347
Norms, 348
Individual Differences in Group Prosocial Orientation, 349
Summary, 351
Principlism: Moral Understanding, 351
Moral Reasoning, 352
Reasoning or Rationale?, 353
Personal Norms and Values, 355
Summary, 358
Chapter Summary, 358
Suggestions for Further Reading, 360
Chapter 10. AGGRESSION: ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR, 361
What Is Aggression?, 363
Conceptual Definitions, 363
Operational Definitions, 365
Chronic Social Issues: Aggression and Social Artifacts, 366
Core Social Motives, 373
Summary, 376
Cognitive Theories of Aggression: Antisocial Understanding, 376
Social Learning: Understanding How and When, 376
Cognitive Structural Approaches: Understanding What Habits of Aggression to Acquire and Why, 378
Attributional Approaches: Understanding Why, 383
Summary, 386
Interpersonal Conflict: Controlling Others, 387
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis, 387
Controlling the Weak, 389
Summary, 390
Protecting One’s Image: Self-Enhancement, 390
Narcissistic Rage, 391
Culture of Honor, 393
Summary, 394
Chapter Summary, 394
Suggestions for Further Reading, 395
Chapter 11. STEREOTYPING, PREJUDICE, AND DISCRIMINATION: SOCIAL BIASES, 397
What Are Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination?, 398
Conceptual Definitions, 398
Operational Definitions, 400
Core Social Motives, 401
Summary, 405
Subtle Bias: (Mis)understanding Others but Enhancing Self, 405
Cool and Indirect Biases: Modern Racism and Subtle Prejudice, 407
Automatic Biases: Categorization and Associations, 410
Ambiguous Biases: Excuses, 413
Ambivalent Biases: Mixed Feelings, 413
Summary, 419
Subtle Bias Is Socially Useful: Belonging and Controlling, 420
Subtle Bias Predicts Deniable Discrimination, 420
Self-fulfilling Prophecies Create Confirming Behavior, 421
Socially Communicated Biases Build Ingroup Cohesion, 422
Accuracy Would Make Stereotypes Useful, 424
Summary, 428
Is Subtle Bias Controllable? Capacity and Motivation to Understand, 428
Individual Differences in Control, 428
Situational Goals Control Automatic Bias, 431
Stimulus Context as Control, 435
Summary, 435
Blatant Bias: Belonging with the Ingroup, Controlling Outgroup Threats, and Enhancing the Self, 436
Realistic Group Conflict Theory: Threat to Resources, 436
Social Identity, Self-Categorization, and Related Theories: Threat to Group Identity, 437
Authoritarianism: Threat to Values, 442
Social Dominance Orientation: Threat to Group Status, 444
System Justification: Threats to the Status Quo, 446
Summary, 446
Effects of Bias: Belonging, Controlling, and Self-Enhancing, 446
Collective Identity and Well-Being, 447
Attributional Ambiguity, 449
Stereotype Threat, 450
Summary, 452
Strategies for Change: Constructive Intergroup Contact Can Control Bias, 452
Chapter Summary, 454
Suggestions for Further Reading, 457
Chapter 12. SMALL GROUPS: ONGOING INTERACTIONS, 459
What Is a Group?, 460
Conceptual Definitions, 460
Operational Definitions, 467
Core Social Motives, 469
Summary, 474
Group Membership: Belonging, 475
Social Identity Operates in Context, 475
Attraction to the Group Fosters Cohesion, 477
Diversity Both Challenges and Facilitates the Group, 478
Joining a Group Occurs in Stages, 479
Summary, 481
Socially Shared Cognition: Understanding Group Structure, 481
All Norms Are Local, 483
Roles Include Leadership and Much More, 488
Subgroups: Minorities and Majorities, 492
Summary, 495
Performance: Understanding and Controlling, 495
Decision-Making, 495
Productivity, 498
Summary, 500
Conflict within Groups: Controlling, 501
Social Dilemmas, 501
Negotiation, 503
Chapter Summary, 504
Suggestions for Further Reading, 506
Chapter 13. SOCIAL INFLUENCE: DOING WHAT OTHERS DO AND SAY, 507
What Is Social Influence?, 508
Conceptual Definitions, 508
Operational Definitions, 509
Core Social Motives: Belonging, Understanding, Controlling, Self-Enhancing, and Trusting, 510
Summary, 510
Conformity: Belonging and Understanding by Doing What Others Do, 511
Classic Studies: Sherif and Asch, 511
Conformity Processes: Fairly Automatic, 513
Minority Influence: Another Process, 514
Self-Categorization Theory: Conforming to Social Reality, 515
Memes, Modern Myths, Rumors, and Gossip, 517
Summary, 517
Obedience: Belonging, Controlling, Trusting, and Understanding by Doing What Others Say, 518
Social Forces: Milgram, 518
Power: Control Resources and Maintain Belonging, 521
Summary, 526
Compliance: Strategies to Understand Self, Maintain Belonging, and Control Resources, 526
Understanding Self as Consistent, 526
Belonging via Reciprocity, Liking, and Approval, 528
Controlling Resources by Valuing Freedom and Scarcity, 529
Summary, 529
Chapter Summary, 530
Suggestions for Further Reading, 531
Chapter 14. CONCLUSION: SOCIAL BEINGS, 533
Social to the Core: Situations, Adaptation, Culture, and Core Motives, 533
Belonging: Focus on Norms, Roles, and Identity, 534
Within Individuals, 534
Between Individuals, 534
Groups, 535
Belonging: Key to Life, 536
Understanding: Focus on Gestalts and Cognition, 536
Within Individuals, 536
Between Individuals, 537
Groups, 538
Understanding: Thinking Is for Doing, 539
Controlling: Focus on Outcomes, 539
Within Individuals, 539
Between Individuals, 539
Groups, 540
Controlling: Contingencies of Cost and Benefit, 541
Enhancing Self: Focus on Defense and Improvement, 541
Within Individuals, 541
Between Individuals, 542
Groups, 542
Enhancing Self: Varieties of Ways to Keep Going, 542
Trusting: Focus on Positivity and Attachment, 543
Within Individuals, 543
Between Individuals, 543
Groups, 543
Trusting: Keeping the World Benevolent, 544
Conclusion: The Social Psychology Enterprise, 544
REFERENCES, 545
AUTHOR INDEX, 611
SUBJECT INDEX, 629

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