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Essential Environmental Science
by
Keller, Edward A., Univ. of California, Santa Barbara; Botkin, Daniel B., The Center for the Study of the Environment, Santa Barbara, California
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
Publishing Date: 2007/10/05
eText ISBN-10
0-470-28278-9
eText ISBN-13
978-0-470-28278-6
Print ISBN-10
0-471-70411-3
Print ISBN-13
978-0-471-70411-9
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Essential Environmental Science
by
Keller, Edward A., Univ. of California, Santa Barbara; Botkin, Daniel B., The Center for the Study of the Environment, Santa Barbara, California
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Copyright, viii
Dedication, ix
About the Authors, x
Preface, xii
Acknowledgments, xvi
1. Fundamental Issues in ...
2. Human Population Growt...
3. Biogeochemical Cycles,...
4. Ecosystems, 57
5. Biological Diversity, ...
6. Restoration Ecology, 9...
7. Forests and Wildlife, ...
8. Environmental Health, ...
9. Agriculture and Enviro...
10. Energy and Environmen...
11. Water and Environment...
12. Oceans and Environmen...
13. Earth’s Atmosphere an...
14. Air Pollution and Env...
15. Minerals and Environm...
16. Waste Management, 332
17. Natural Hazards, 351
18. Environmental Economi...
19. Planning for a Sustai...
Appendices, 405
Glossary, 410
Notes, 417
Index, 433
Table of Contents
Copyright, viii
Dedication, ix
About the Authors, x
Preface, xii
Acknowledgments, xvi
1. Fundamental Issues in Environmental Science, 1
Big Question: Why is Science Necessary to Solve Environmental Problems?, 1
Case Study: Easter Island, 2
1.1. Fundamental Principles, 3
1.2. Human Population: The Basic Environmental Problem, 3
1.3. Sustainability, 3
Earth’s Carrying Capacity, 4
1.4. A Global Perspective, 4
1.5. Cities Affect the Environment, 5
1.6. People and Nature, 5
1.7. Science and Values, 6
1.8. Solving Many Environmental Problems Involves Systems and Rates of Change, 7
Environmental Unity, 10
Changes and Equilibrium in Systems, 12
Biota: Biosphere and Sustaining Life, 13
Ecosystems, 14
Characteristics of Environmental Systems that Make Solving Environmental Problems Harder, 14
1.9. The Precautionary Principle: When in Doubt, Play It Safe, 15
Return to the Big Question, 16
Summary, 16
Key Terms, 17
Getting It Straight, 17
What Do You Think?, 18
Pulling It All Together, 18
2. Human Population Growth, 19
Big Question: Why is Human Population Growth the Underlying Environmental Problem?, 19
Case Study: How the Great Tsunami of 2004 Affected the Human Population, 20
2.1. How Populations Change Over Time: Basic Concepts of Population Dynamics, 21
The Prophecy of Malthus, 21
2.2. Population Growth, 21
How Many People Have Lived on Earth?, 22
2.3. The Logistic Growth Curve, 23
2.4. Other Clues to How Our Population May Change, 24
Age Structure, 24
The Demographic Transition, 25
Human Death Rates and the Rise of Industrial Societies, 27
Longevity and Its Effect on Population Growth, 29
Life Expectancy, 29
2.5. Limiting Factors, 30
The Quality of Life and the Human Carrying Capacity of Earth, 30
2.6. How Can We Achieve Zero Population Growth?, 30
National Programs to Reduce Birth Rates?, 31
2.7. How Many People Can Earth Support?, 32
Return to the Big Question, 32
Summary, 33
Key Terms, 33
Getting It Straight, 33
What Do You Think?, 34
Pulling It All Together, 34
Further Reading, 35
3. Biogeochemical Cycles, 36
Big Question: Why Are Biogeochemical Cycles Essential to Long-Term Life on Earth?, 36
Case Study: Lake Washington, 37
3.1. How Chemicals Cycle, 38
Biogeochemical Cycles, 38
Chemical Reactions, 38
3.2. Environmental Questions and Biogeochemical Cycles, 40
Biological Questions, 40
Geologic Questions, 40
Atmospheric Questions, 40
Hydrologic Questions, 40
3.3. Biogeochemical Cycles and Life: Limiting Factors, 40
3.4. General Concepts Central to Biogeochemical Cycles, 42
3.5. The Geologic Cycle, 42
The Tectonic Cycle, 42
The Hydrologic Cycle, 43
The Rock Cycle, 44
3.6. Biogeochemical Cycling in Ecosystems, 46
Ecosystem Cycles of a Metal and a Nonmetal, 47
Chemical Cycling and the “Balance of Nature”, 47
3.7. Some Major Global Chemical Cycles, 48
The Carbon Cycle, 48
The Missing Carbon Sink, 50
The Nitrogen Cycle, 50
The Phosphorus Cycle, 52
Return to the Big Question, 54
Summary, 54
Key Terms, 55
Getting It Straight, 55
What Do You Think?, 55
Pulling It All Together, 56
Further Reading, 56
4. Ecosystems, 57
Big Question: What is Necessary to Sustain Life on Earth?, 57
Case Study: The Acorn Connection, 58
4.1. How Populations Change Over Time and Interact with Each Other, 59
4.2. Professions and Places: The Ecological Niche and the Habitat, 61
Measuring Niches, 61
4.3. The Competitive Exclusion Principle, 62
4.4. How Species Coexist, 62
4.5. Symbiosis, 63
4.6. The Community Effect, 64
4.7. The Ecosystem: Sustaining Life on Earth, 66
4.8. Basic Characteristics of Ecosystems, 66
4.9. Food Webs, 68
4.10. Ecosystem Energy Flow, 68
Life and the Laws of Thermodynamics, 70
Producing New Organic Matter, 70
Practical Implication I: Human Domination of Ecosystems, 71
Practical Implication II: Ecosystem Management, 71
Return to the Big Question, 72
Summary, 72
Key Terms, 73
Getting It Straight, 73
What Do You Think?, 73
Pulling It All Together, 74
Further Reading, 74
5. Biological Diversity, 75
Big Question: Can We Save Endangered Species and Keep Biological Diversity High?, 75
Case Study: The Shrinking Mississippi Delta, 76
5.1. What is Biological Diversity?, 78
5.2. Biological Evolution, 78
Mutation, 78
Natural Selection, 79
Migration, 79
Genetic Drift, 80
Biological Evolution in Action Today: Mosquitoes and the Malaria Parasite, 80
5.3. Island Ecology, 82
5.4. Basic Concepts of Biological Diversity, 84
5.5. The Number of Species on Earth, 84
5.6. Why Are There Many Species in Some Places and Not in Others?, 86
5.7. What Can We Do to Save Endangered Species?, 86
5.8. Why Save Endangered Species?, 88
5.9. How a Species Becomes Endangered and Extinct, 89
5.10. Causes of Mass Extinction, 90
5.11. How People Cause Extinctions and Affect Biological Diversity, 90
5.12. The Good News: The Status of Some Species Has Improved, 90
5.13. Can a Species Be Too Abundant? If So, What Should We Do?, 91
5.14. The Kirtland’s Warbler and Environmental Change, 91
5.15. Ecological Islands and Endangered Species, 91
Return to the Big Question, 92
Summary, 93
Key Terms, 93
Getting It Straight, 94
What Do You Think?, 94
Pulling It All Together, 94
Further Reading, 95
6. Restoration Ecology, 96
Big Question: Can We Restore Damaged Ecosystems?, 96
Case Study: Restoring a Ponderosa Forest, 97
6.1. Restoration Ecology, 98
6.2. How Nature Restores Itself, 98
Patterns in Succession, 99
Dune Succession, 99
Bog Succession, 99
Old-Field Succession, 102
General Patterns of Succession, 102
6.3. During Succession, Does One Species Prepare the Way for Another?, 103
Life-History Differences, 103
Chronic Patchiness, 104
Other Changes During Succession, 104
6.4. Can Nature Ever Be Constant?, 106
6.5. Examples of Restoration, 107
Steps in Ecological Restoration: Planning, 107
Prairie Restoration, 108
Restoration of the Florida Everglades, 108
Restoration of California’s Channel Islands and Their Strange Island Foxes, 109
Restoring Land Damaged by Lead Mines in England, 111
Return to the Big Question, 111
Summary, 111
Key Terms, 112
Getting It Straight, 112
What Do You Think?, 112
Pulling It All Together, 113
Further Reading, 113
7. Forests and Wildlife, 114
Big Question: Can We Have Forests and Wildlife and Use Them Too?, 114
Case Study: Trying to Save a Small Owl From Extinction, 115
7.1. Keeping Our Living Resources Alive, 116
7.2. Modern Conflicts Over Forestland and Forest Resources, 116
7.3. A Modern Forester’s View of a Forest, 119
The Famous Hubbard Brook Experiment, 119
7.4. Clear-Cutting That Really Did Not Work: The Sad Story of Michigan’s “Stump Barrens”, 120
7.5. Are There Other Ways to Harvest Trees, 121
7.6. International Aspects of Forestry, 121
7.7. Plantation Forestry, 122
7.8. Are the World’s Forests Shrinking, Growing, or Neither?, 123
7.9. Indirect Deforestation, 123
7.10. Traditional Wildlife Management, 124
Bison on the Range and Then Mostly Off the Range, 125
Pribilof Island Reindeer, 126
7.11. Improved Approaches to Wildlife Management, 128
Time Series and Historical Range of Variation, 128
Age Structure as Useful Information, 130
7.12. Managing Two or More Species at a Time: Do Predators Matter?, 130
Return to the Big Question, 131
Summary, 131
Getting It Straight, 132
What Do You Think?, 132
Pulling It All Together, 133
Further Reading, 133
8. Environmental Health, Pollution and Toxicology, 134
Big Question: Why Are Even Very Small Amounts of Pollutants a Major Concern?, 134
Case Study: Demasculinization and Feminization of Frogs in the Environment, 135
8.1. Some Basics, 136
Terminology, 137
How We Measure the Amount of Pollution, 138
8.2. Categories of Pollutants, 138
Infectious Agents, 138
Toxic Heavy Metals, 138
Toxic Pathways, 138
Mercury and Minimata Japan, 141
Lead and the Urban Environment, 141
Organic Compounds, 142
Hormonally Active Agents, 144
Thermal Pollution, 144
Particulates, 146
Electromagnetic Fields, 146
Noise Pollution, 147
Voluntary Exposure, 148
8.3. General Effects of Pollutants, 148
Dose and Response, 149
Threshold Effects, 149
Ecological Gradients, 150
Tolerance, 150
Acute and Chronic Effects, 150
8.4. Risk Assessment and Risk Management, 150
Return to the Big Question, 151
Summary, 151
Key Terms, 151
Getting It Straight, 152
What Do You Think?, 152
Pulling It All Together, 152
Further Reading, 153
9. Agriculture and Environment, 154
Big Question: Can We Feed the World Without Destroying the Environment?, 154
Case Study: Clean-Water Farms, 155
9.1. How Agriculture Changes the Environment, 156
9.2. Dust Bowls and Our Eroding Soils, 158
9.3. Where Eroded Soil Goes, 160
9.4. Making Soils Sustainable, 160
9.5. Farm Pests, 161
9.6. How Much Pesticide Do We Release Into the Environment? And Where Does It Go?, 162
9.7. The Search for a Magic Bullet, 162
DDT, 163
9.8. Ecological Approaches to Pest Control, 165
Integrated Pest Management, 165
9.9. Hybrids and Genetic Modification: Creating Better Crops, 166
Biotech Comes to the Farm, 167
Bioteching New Hybrids, 168
The Terminator Gene, 169
Transfer of Genes from One Form of Life to Another, 169
9.10. Grazing on Rangelands: An Environmental Benefit or Problem?, 169
Traditional and Industrialized Use of Grazing Lands and Rangelands, 170
The Geography of Agricultural Animals, 171
How Many Grazing Animals Can the Land Support, 171
9.11. Organic Farming, 172
9.12. Deserts: What Are They and What Causes Them?, 173
Preventing Desertification, 174
9.13. Does Farming Change the Biosphere?, 174
Return to the Big Question, 175
Summary, 175
Key Terms, 176
Getting It Straight, 176
What Do You Think?, 176
Pulling It All Together, 176
Further Reading, 177
10. Energy and Environment, 178
Big Question: Can We Assure a Sustainable Supply of Energy?, 178
Case Study: Winds of Change in Iowa, 179
10.1. World Energy Supply and Use, 180
10.2. Energy and Work, 181
10.3. Types of Fuels, 181
10.4. Petroleum Products: Oil and Natural Gas, 183
Oil, 183
Natural Gas, 183
10.5. Coal, 184
10.6. The Environmental Effects of Extracting, Delivering, and Burning Coal, 185
Strip Mining, 185
Underground Mining, 186
The Trouble With Coal, 186
10.7. Environmental Effects of Extracting, Delivering, and Using Petroleum Products, 187
10.8. Three Basic Alternatives to Fossil Fuels: Solar, Geothermal, and Nuclear Energy, 188
10.9. Solar Energy: Two Types, 188
Passive Solar Energy, 189
Active Solar Energy Systems, 189
Environmental Effects of Using Solar Energy, 189
The Future of Solar Energy, 189
Alternative Energy Sources: Bavaria Lights the Way, 190
10.10. Wind Power, 190
10.11. Water Power, 192
Water Power and the Environment, 192
Tidal Power: Another Kind of Water Power, 193
10.12. Biomass Energy, 194
Sources of Biomass Energy, 194
Biomass Energy and the Environment, 195
10.13. Geothermal Energy, 195
10.14. Nuclear Energy, 196
Nonbreeder Reactors: Fission Reactors, 197
Breeder Reactors, 198
Fusion Reactors, 198
10.15. Environmental Problems of Nuclear Power, 198
Three Mile Island: A Cooling Failure Leads to a Meltdown, 198
Chernobyl, 199
Some Facts You Should Know About Radioactivity, 200
10.16. How Are We Dealing with These Problems Today?, 202
Radiation and Health, 202
Radioactive-Waste Management, 202
10.17. Energy: Storing It, Transporting It, Conserving It, 204
Storing Energy, 204
Transporting Energy, 205
Conserving Energy by Using It More Efficiently, 206
Return to the Big Question, 207
Summary, 207
Key Terms, 208
Getting It Straight, 208
What Do You Think?, 208
Pulling It All Together, 209
Further Reading, 209
11. Water and Environment, 210
Big Question: Can We Maintain Our Water Resources for Future Generations?, 210
Case Study: The Colorado River: Water Resources Management, Water Pollution, and the Environment, 211
11.1. Water, 212
A Brief Global Perspective, 213
Water Sources, 214
Desalination, 215
11.2. Water Supply, 216
11.3. Off-Stream and In-Stream Use, 218
Transport of Water, 219
Some Trends in Water Use, 220
11.4. Water Conservation, 221
Agricultural Use, 221
Domestic Use, 221
Industry and Manufacturing Use, 223
Perception and Water Use, 223
11.5. Sustainability and Water Management, 223
Sustainable Water Use, 224
Water Management and the Environment, 224
11.6. Wetlands, 224
Preserving and Restoring Wetlands, 226
11.7. Dams and the Environment, 226
11.8. Channelization and the Environment, 227
Kissimmee River, Florida: A Case Study of Problems with Channelization, 228
11.9. Flooding, 228
Urbanization and Flooding, 228
11.10. Global Water Shortage Linked to Food Supply, 229
11.11. Water Pollution, 229
11.12. Sources of Pollution, 231
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), 231
Waterborne Disease, 231
Fecal Coliform Bacteria, 231
Nutrients, 232
Eutrophication, 233
Oil, 236
Sediment, 236
Acid Mine Drainage, 236
11.13. Surface Water Pollution, 237
11.14. Groundwater Pollution, 238
Principles of Groundwater Pollution: An Example, 238
Another Example: Long Island, New York, 238
11.15. Water Treatment, 239
11.16. Wastewater Treatment, 239
Septic-Tank Disposal Systems, 239
Treatment Plants, 240
Boston Harbor: Cleaning up a National Treasure, 241
Land Application of Wastewater: An Old Practice Made Cleaner, 241
Reuse of Treated Wastewater, 242
11.17. Water Pollution and Environmental Law, 243
Return to the Big Question, 244
Summary, 244
Key Terms, 245
Getting It Straight, 245
What Do You Think?, 245
Pulling It All Together, 246
Further Reading, 246
12. Oceans and Environment, 247
Big Question: Can We Learn to Manage the Oceans’ Resources?, 247
Case Study: Shrimp, Mangroves, and Pickup Trucks, 248
12.1. Lots of Fish in the Sea: World Fish Production, 249
12.2. The World’s Fisheries Are in Trouble: The Decline of Fish Populations, 250
12.3. An Ocean is Many Habitats and Ecosystems, 253
12.4. Ocean Currents, 254
12.5. Where Are the Fish?, 254
12.6. Salmon, Anchovies, and Upwellings, 255
12.7. Coral Reefs: A Special Problem, 258
12.8. We Pollute the Oceans Too, Which Gets Fish in Trouble, 258
Plastics in the Ocean, 258
12.9. Can We Make Ocean Fisheries Sustainable?, 260
Marine Sanctuaries, 261
Aquaculture and Mariculture, 262
12.10. Conservation of Whales and Other Marine Mammals, 263
Dolphins and Other Small Whales, 264
Return to the Big Question, 265
Summary, 265
Key Terms, 265
Getting It Straight, 265
What Do You Think?, 266
Pulling It All Together, 266
Further Reading, 266
13. Earth’s Atmosphere and Climate, 267
Big Question: Global Warming is Happening: What Part Do We Play?, 267
Case Study: Global Warming and the Polar Bears of Hudson Bay, 268
13.1. Is the Global Temperature Rising?, 269
13.2. What Causes Climate Change of Any Sort, and What Is Making It Get Warmer?, 270
Variation in the Sun’s Energy May Be One Reason for Climate Changes, 271
Milankovich Cycles Are Another Possible Explanation, 272
Volcanoes Can Alter Climate, 273
Dust from Our Own Activities Also Cools the Climate, 273
Variations in Ocean Currents May Affect the Climate, 273
El Niño: A Special Climate Phenomenon Linked to Ocean Currents, 273
13.3. What Is the Greenhouse Effect, and How Does It Warm Earth’s Surface?, 275
13.4. Greenhouse Gases Are Increasing, and We Are Part of the Reason, 277
Carbon Dioxide, 277
Methane, 278
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 278
Nitrous Oxide, 278
Ozone, 278
13.5. Would It Really Be So Serious if Earth Warmed Up a Bit?, 279
What Will Be the Effects of a Rising Sea Level?, 279
How Will Global Warming Affect the World’s Climate?, 279
Agriculture, 281
Lowering of Water Tables and Reservoirs Could Cause Serious Shortages, 281
Biological and Ecological Changes, 282
Migration of Species Can Spread Diseases, 282
Endangered Species, 283
13.6. Can We Do Anything to Slow the Temperature Rise?, 285
What Has Been Done So Far to Mitigate Global Warming?, 286
13.7. Can We Do Anything to Alleviate the Effects of Global Warming?, 287
Return to the Big Question, 287
Summary, 287
Key Terms, 288
Getting It Straight, 288
What Do You Think?, 288
Pulling It All Together, 289
Further Reading, 289
14. Air Pollution and Environment, 290
Big Question: Why is Air Pollution in Cities Still Such a Big Problem?, 290
Case Study: An Olympic Success Story, 291
14.1. A Brief History of Air Pollution, 292
14.2. General Effects of Air Pollution, 293
14.3. Primary and Secondary Pollutants, Natural and Human, 293
14.4. Major Air Pollutants: Where Do They Come From and What Do They Do?, 293
Sulfur Dioxide, 294
Nitrogen Oxides, 294
Carbon Monoxide (CO), 295
Ozone, 295
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), 295
Particulate Matter, 296
Hydrogen Sulfide, 296
Hydrogen Fluoride, 297
Other Hazardous Gases, 297
Lead, 297
14.5. Urban Air Pollution, 297
Reducing Urban Air Pollution At Its Source, 299
Automobiles, 299
14.6. Acid Rain, 300
Control of Acid Rain, 304
14.7. Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere, 304
Reducing Ozone Depletion: An Environmental Success Story, 306
14.8. Indoor Air Pollution, 307
Sources and Concentrations of Indoor Air Pollution, 307
Sick Buildings, 308
Symptoms of Indoor Air Pollution, 309
Two Particularly Important Indoor Pollutants, 310
Controlling Indoor Air Pollution, 311
14.9. Air Pollution Legislation, Standards, and Index of Air Quality, 311
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, 311
Ambient-Air Quality Standards, 311
Air Quality Index (AQI), 312
14.10. The Cost of Reducing Air Pollution, 312
14.11. What Lies Ahead for Air Pollution?, 313
Return to the Big Question, 314
Summary, 315
Key Terms, 315
Getting It Straight, 316
What Do You Think?, 316
Pulling It All Together, 316
Further Reading, 317
15. Minerals and Environment, 318
Big Question: Is It Possible to Use Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Sustainably?, 318
Case Study: Fossil Trace Golf Club, a Story of Successful Mine Reclamation, 319
15.1. The Importance of Minerals to Society, 320
15.2. How Mineral Deposits Are Formed, 320
Distribution of Mineral Resources, 320
Plate Boundaries, 321
Igneous Processes, 321
Sedimentary Processes, 321
Biological Processes, 322
Weathering Processes, 322
15.3. Resources and Reserves, 323
15.4. Use and Availability of Mineral Resources, 324
Availability of Mineral Resources, 324
Mineral Consumption, 325
U.S. Supply of Minerals, 325
15.5. Impacts of Mineral Development, 325
Environmental Impacts, 325
Social Impacts, 327
15.6. Minimizing Environmental Impacts of Mineral Development, 327
Recycling, 329
15.7. Minerals and Sustainability, 329
Return to the Big Question, 330
Summary, 330
Key Terms, 331
Getting It Straight, 331
What Do You Think?, 331
Pulling It All Together, 331
Further Reading, 331
16. Waste Management, 332
Big Question: Is Zero Waste Possible?, 332
Case Study: New York City’s Zero Waste Campaign, 333
16.1. What Is This Waste We Are Talking About?, 334
Composition of Solid Waste, 334
16.2. Early Concepts of Waste Disposal, 335
16.3. Modern Trends, 335
16.4. Integrated Waste Management (IWM), 336
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, 336
Markets for Recycled Products, 336
Recycling Human Waste, 337
16.5. Materials Management, 337
16.6. Solid-Waste Management, 338
On-Site Disposal, 338
Composting, 338
Incineration, 338
Open Dumps, 339
Municipal Solid Waste, 339
16.7. Hazardous Waste, 341
16.8. Hazardous-Waste Legislation, 344
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 344
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 344
Other Legislation, 344
16.9. Hazardous-Waste Management: Land Disposal, 345
Secure Landfill, 345
Land Application: Microbial Breakdown, 345
Surface Impoundment, 345
Deep-Well Disposal, 345
Summary of Land Disposal Methods, 346
16.10. Alternatives to Land Disposal of Hazardous Waste, 346
16.11. Pollution Prevention, 347
Waste Disposal at a Cheese Company, 348
Return to the Big Question, 348
Summary, 348
Key Terms, 349
Getting It Straight, 349
What Do You Think?, 349
Pulling It All Together, 350
Further Reading, 350
17. Natural Hazards, 351
Big Question: Why are More of Them Becoming Disasters and Catastrophes?, 351
Case Study: La Conchita Landslide, 2005, 352
17.1. Hazards, Disasters, and Catastrophes, 353
Taking a Historical Point of View, 355
Fundamental Concepts Related to Natural Hazards, 356
Nature Can Play a Dual Role, Performing Natural Service Functions and Posing Hazards, 356
17.2. Natural Hazards Are Predictable, 358
17.3. Linkages Between Hazards and Between the Physical and Biological Environments, 360
17.4. Hazards That Used to Produce Disasters Now Produce Catastrophes, 361
Land Transformation and Natural Hazards, 362
Hurricane Katrina: One of the Worst Natural Catastrophes in U.S. History, 363
17.5. Risk from Hazards Can Be Estimated, 366
17.6. Adverse Effects of Hazards Can Be Minimized, 367
Active vs. Reactive Response, 367
Impact and Recovery from Disasters and Catastrophes, 368
Perceiving, Avoiding, and Adjusting to Hazards, 369
17.7. What Does the Future Hold with Respect to Disasters and Catastrophes?, 371
Return to the Big Question, 371
Summary, 372
Key Terms, 372
Getting It Straight, 372
What Do You Think?, 372
Pulling It All Together, 373
Further Reading, 373
18. Environmental Economics, 374
Big Question: Can We Put a Price on Scenic Beauty, Endangered Species, and the Quality of Life?, 374
Case Study: We Can Easily Find Out the Price of Salmon On The Table, But What Is the Economic Value of Salmon Swimming In a River?, 375
18.1. Some Environmental Dollar Values, 376
18.2. The Environment as a Commons, 376
18.3. Low Growth Rate and Therefore Low Profit as a Factor in Exploitation, 377
18.4. Externalities: Costs that Don’t Show Up in the Price Tag, 378
18.5. Natural Capital, Environmental Intangibles, and Ecosystem Services, 380
Valuing the Beauty of Nature, 380
18.6. How is the Future Valued?, 381
18.7. Risk-Benefit Analysis, 382
Acceptability of Risks and Costs, 382
18.8. Global Issues: Who Bears the Cost?, 384
18.9. Environmental Policy Instruments, 385
Pollution Control and the Law of Diminishing Returns, 385
Return to the Big Question, 386
Summary, 386
Key Terms, 386
Getting It Straight, 386
What Do You Think?, 387
Pulling It All Together, 387
Further Reading, 388
19. Planning for a Sustainable Future, 389
Big Question: How Can We Plan, and Achieve, a Sustainable Environment?, 389
19.1. The Ideal Sustainable Environment, 390
19.2. The Process of Planning a Future, 391
19.3. In Planning a Nation’s Landscapes, How Big Should Wildlands Be?, 391
19.4. Our Need for Nature in an Increasingly Urban Environment, 392
The City Park, 393
The Ecological Capital of Brazil: How a City Transformed Itself, 395
19.5. Regional Planning: The Tennessee Valley Authority, 396
19.6. Environment and Law: A Horse, a Gun, and a Plan, 396
Three Stages in the History of Federal Legislation Pertaining to Land and Natural Resources, 397
19.7. Skiing at Mineral King Raised a Question: Does Private Enterprise Belong On Public Lands?, 398
19.8. How You Can Play a Role in Legal Processes, 399
19.9. International Environmental Law and Diplomacy, 400
19.10. The Challenge to Students of the Environment, 400
Return to the Big Question, 402
Summary, 402
Key Terms, 402
Getting It Straight, 403
What Do You Think?, 403
Pulling It All Together, 403
Further Reading, 404
Appendices, 405
Glossary, 410
Notes, 417
Index, 433
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