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Copyright, iv
Preface, v
0. Foreword: Introduction to Embedded Systems, xxxv
0.1. Introducing Embedded Systems, xxxv
0.2. Philosophy, xxxv
0.3. Embedded Systems, xxxvi
0.3.1. What Is an Embedded System?, xxxvi
0.3.2. Building an Embedded System, xxxviii
0.4. The Embedded Design and Development Process, xl
0.5. Summary, xlv
0.6. Review Questions, xlvi
0.7. Thought Questions, xlvi
Part One. Hardware and Software Infrastructure, 1
Chapter 1. The Hardware Side—Part 1: An Introduction, 1
1.0. Introduction, 1
1.1. The Hardware Side—Getting Started, 2
1.2. The Core Level, 3
1.2.1. The Microprocessor, 5
1.2.2. The Microcomputer, 6
1.2.3. The Microcontroller, 6
1.2.4. The Digital Signal Processor, 7
1.3. Representing Information, 8
1.3.1. Word Size, 8
1.4. Understanding Numbers, 9
1.4.1. Resolution, 9
1.4.2. Propagation of Error, 10
1.5. Addresses, 12
1.6. Instructions, 13
1.7. Registers—A First Look, 15
1.8. Embedded Systems—An Instruction Set View, 17
1.8.1. Instruction Set—Instruction Types, 18
1.8.2. Data Transfer Instructions, 18
1.8.3. Execution Flow, 25
1.9. Embedded Systems—A Register View, 32
1.9.1. The Basic Register, 33
1.9.2. Register Operations, 34
Write to a Register, 34
Read from a Register, 34
1.10. Register Transfer Language, 35
1.11. Register View of a Microprocessor, 35
1.11.1. The Datapath, 36
1.11.2. Processor Control, 37
Fetch, 37
Decode, 38
Execute, 38
Next, 38
1.12. Summary, 44
1.13. Review Questions, 44
1.14. Thought Questions, 45
1.15. Problems, 46
Chapter 2. The Hardware Side—Part 2: Combinational Logic—A Practical View, 54
2.0. Introduction, 54
2.1. A Look at Real-World Gates—Part 1: Signal Levels, 55
2.1.1. Logic Levels, 55
2.1.2. A First Look Inside the Logic Gate, 58
2.1.3. Fan-In and Fan-Out, 59
Logic 0 State, 60
Logic 1 State, 60
2.2. A Look at Real-World Gates—Part 2: Time, 62
2.2.1. Rise and Fall Times, 62
2.2.2. Propagation Delay, 63
2.2.3. Race Conditions and Hazards, 65
2.3. A Look at Real-World Gates—Part 3: The Legacy of Early Physicists, 68
2.3.1. Resistors, 68
2.3.2. Capacitors, 71
2.4. Logic Circuits and Parasitic Components, 73
2.4.1. First-Order RC Circuits, 73
2.4.2. Second-Order RLC Circuits, 77
2.5. Testing Combinational Circuits—Introduction and Philosophy, 79
2.6. Modeling, Simulation, and Tools, 79
2.7. Structural Faults, 80
2.7.1. Stuck-at Faults, 80
2.7.2. Open Circuit Faults, 83
2.7.3. Bridging Faults, 84
2.8. Functional Faults, 87
Hazards and Race Conditions, 87
2.9. Summary, 87
2.10. Review Questions, 88
2.11. Thought Questions, 89
2.12. Problems, 90
Chapter 3. The Hardware Side—Part 3: Storage Elements and Finite-State Machines—A Practical View, 96
3.0. Introduction, 96
3.1. The Concepts of State and Time, 97
Time, 97
State, 97
State Changes, 97
3.2. The State Diagram, 98
3.3. Finite-State Machines—A Theoretical Model, 99
3.4. Designing Finite-State Machines—Part 1: Registers, 101
3.4.1. Storage Registers, 101
3.4.2. Shift Registers, 101
3.4.3. Linear Feedback Shift Registers, 106
3.5. Designing Finite-State Machines: Part 2—Counting and Dividing, 108
3.5.1. Dividers, 109
Divide by Two, 109
3.5.2. Asynchronous Dividers and Counters, 109
3.5.3. Synchronous Dividers and Counters, 111
3.5.4. Johnson Counters, 112
3.6. Practical Considerations—Part 1: Timing in Latches and Flip-Flops, 115
3.6.1. Gated Latches, 115
3.6.2. Flip-Flops, 115
3.6.3. Propagation Delays, 116
3.6.4. Timing Margin, 116
3.7. Practical Considerations—Part 2: Clocks and Clock Distribution, 118
3.7.1. The Source, 118
Frequency, 118
Precision and Stability, 120
3.7.2. Designing a Clock System, 121
3.8. Testing Sequential Circuits, 124
3.8.1. The Finite-State Machine Model Revisited, 125
3.8.2. Sequential Circuit Test—A First Look, 125
Defining Homing and Transfer Sequences, 127
3.8.3. Scan Design Techniques, 130
3.8.4. Boundary Scan—Extending Scan-Path Techniques, 131
3.9. Summary, 134
3.10. Review Questions, 134
3.11. Thought Questions, 135
3.12. Problems, 137
Chapter 4. Memories and the Memory Subsystem, 146
4.0. Introduction, 146
4.1. Classifying Memory, 147
4.2. A General Memory Interface, 148
4.3. ROM Overview, 149
4.3.1. Read Operation, 150
4.4. Static RAM Overview, 150
4.4.1. Write Operation, 150
4.4.2. Read Operation, 151
4.5. Dynamic RAM Overview, 152
4.5.1. Read Operation, 152
4.5.2. Write Operation, 152
4.5.3. Refresh Operation, 152
4.6. Chip Organization, 154
4.7. Terminology, 154
4.8. A Memory Interface in Detail, 156
4.9. An SRAM Design, 156
The Memory Array, 156
Reading and Writing, 158
Write, 158
Read, 158
4.10. A DRAM Design, 159
4.10.1. DRAM Timing Analysis, 160
Core Components, 160
4.10.2. DRAM Refresh, 161
4.11. The DRAM Memory Interface, 161
4.11.1. Refresh Timing, 162
4.11.2. Refresh Address, 162
4.11.3. Refresh Arbitration, 164
4.12. The Memory Map, 166
4.13. Memory Subsystem Architecture, 167
4.14. Basic Concepts of Caching, 168
4.14.1. Locality of Reference, 168
4.14.2. Cache System Architecture, 169
4.15. Designing a Cache System, 169
4.15.1. A High-Level Description, 170
4.16. Caching—A Direct Mapped Implementation, 170
4.17. Caching—An Associative Mapping Cache Implementation, 173
4.18. Caching—A Block-Set Associative Mapping Cache Implementation, 175
4.19. Dynamic Memory Allocation, 176
4.19.1. Swapping, 177
4.19.2. Overlays, 177
4.19.3. Multiprogramming, 178
Fixed, 178
Variable Number, 179
4.20. Testing Memories, 179
4.20.1. RAM Memory, 180
4.20.2. ROM Memory, 183
4.21. Summary, 184
4.22. Review Questions, 184
4.23. Thought Questions, 186
4.24. Problems, 187
Chapter 5. An Introduction to Software Modeling, 190
5.0. Introduction, 190
5.1. An Introduction to UML, 191
5.2. UML Diagrams, 192
5.3. Use Cases, 193
Writing a Use Case, 194
5.4. Class Diagrams, 194
Class Relationships, 195
5.4.1. Inheritance or Generalization, 196
5.4.2. Interface, 196
5.4.3. Containment, 197
5.5. Dynamic Modeling with UML, 198
5.6. Interaction Diagrams, 198
5.6.1. Call and Return, 199
5.6.2. Create and Destroy, 199
5.6.3. Send, 199
5.7. Sequence Diagrams, 200
5.8. Fork and Join, 201
5.9. Branch and Merge, 202
5.10. Activity Diagram, 203
5.11. State Chart Diagrams, 203
5.11.1. Events, 203
5.11.2. State Machines and State Chart Diagrams, 204
5.12. Dynamic Modeling with Structured Design Methods, 207
5.12.1. Brief Introduction to the Structured Design Philosophy, 207
5.12.2. Data and Control Flow Diagrams, 208
5.13. Summary, 210
5.14. Review Questions, 211
5.15. Thought Questions, 212
5.16. Problems, 213
Chapter 6. The Software Side—Part 1: The C Program, 215
6.0. Introduction, 215
6.1. Software and Its Manifestations, 215
6.1.1. Combining Hardware and Software, 216
6.1.2. High-Level Language, 217
6.1.3. Preprocessor, 217
6.1.4. Cross Compiler, 218
6.1.5. Assembler, 218
6.1.6. Linker and Loader, 218
6.1.7. Storing, 220
6.2. An Embedded C Program, 220
6.2.1. A Program, 220
6.2.2. Developing Embedded Software, 221
Abstraction, 221
6.3. C Building Blocks, 222
6.3.1. Fundamental Data—What's in a Name?, 222
Identifiers in C, 222
6.3.2. Defining Variables—Giving Them a Name and a Value, 223
6.3.3. Defining Variables—Giving Them a Type, Scope, and Storage Class, 224
6.4. C Program Structure, 238
6.4.1. Separate Compilation, 239
6.4.2. Translation Units, 240
6.4.3. Linking and Linkage, 240
6.4.4. Where C Finds Functions, 242
6.4.5. Makefiles, 242
6.4.6. Standard and Custom Libraries, 243
6.4.7. Debug and Release Builds, 243
6.5. Summary, 244
6.6. Review Questions, 244
6.7. Thought Questions, 245
6.8. Problems, 246
Chapter 7. The Software Side—Part 2: Pointers and Functions, 250
7.0. Introduction, 250
7.1. Bitwise Operators, 251
7.1.1. Bit Manipulation Operations, 251
7.1.2. Testing, Resetting, and Setting Bits, 252
7.1.3. Arithmetic Operations, 255
7.2. Pointer Variables and Memory Addresses, 256
7.2.1. Getting Started, 256
7.2.2. Simple Pointer Arithmetic, 260
Pointer Comparison, 263
7.2.3. Const Pointers, 263
7.2.4. Generic and NULL Pointers, 265
7.3. The Function, 266
Function Header, 266
Function Name, 266
Arguments or Parameter List, 267
Return, 267
The Function Body, 267
7.3.1. Using a Function, 267
7.3.2. Pass by Value, 271
7.3.3. Pass by Reference, 273
7.3.4. Function Name Scope, 274
7.3.5. Function Prototypes, 274
7.3.6. Nesting Functions, 276
7.4. Pointers to Functions, 276
7.5. Structures, 280
7.5.1. The Struct, 281
7.5.2. Initialization, 283
7.5.3. Access, 283
7.5.4. Operations, 284
7.5.5. Structs as Data Members, 284
7.5.6. Pointers to Structs, 288
7.5.7. Passing Structs and Pointers to Structs, 289
7.6. The Interrupt, 290
7.6.1. The Interrupt Control Flow, 290
7.6.2. The Interrupt Event, 290
7.6.3. The Interrupt Service Routine—ISR, 291
7.6.4. The Interrupt Vector Table, 292
7.6.5. Control of the Interrupt, 293
7.7. Summary, 295
7.8. Review Questions, 295
7.9. Thought Questions, 296
7.10. Problems, 298
Part Two. Developing the Foundation, 301
Chapter 8. Safety, Reliability, and Robust Design, 301
8.0. Introduction, 301
8.1. Safety, 302
8.2. Reliability, 302
8.3. Faults, Errors, and Failures, 304
8.4. Another Look at Reliability, 305
8.5. Some Real-World Examples, 306
Big Word … Small Register, 306
It's My Turn—Not Yours, 307
Where Do I Put My Stuff?, 307
8.6. Single-Point and Common Mode Failure Model, 308
8.7. Safe Specifications, 308
8.8. Safe and Robust Designs, 309
8.8.1. Understanding System Requirements, 309
8.8.2. Managing Essential Information, 310
8.8.3. The Review Process, 311
8.8.4. Bug Lists, 311
8.8.5. Errors and Exceptions, 312
8.8.6. Use the Available Tools, 314
8.9. Safe and Robust Designs—The System, 315
8.10. System Functional Level Considerations, 316
8.10.1. Control and Alarm Subsystems, 316
8.10.2. Memory and Bus Subsystems, 316
8.10.3. Data Faults and the Communications Subsystem, 316
8.10.4. Power and Reset Subsystems, 316
8.10.5. Peripheral Device Subsystems, 317
8.10.6. Clock Subsystem, 317
8.11. System Architecture Level Considerations, 317
8.11.1. Fail Operational²/Fail Operational Capability, 317
8.11.2. Reduced Capability, 319
8.12. Busses—The Subsystem Interconnect, 320
8.12.1. The Star Configuration, 320
8.12.2. The Multidrop Bus Configuration, 321
8.12.3. The Ring Configuration, 321
8.13. Data and Control Faults—Data Boundary Values, 322
8.13.1. Type Conformance, 322
8.13.2. Boundary Values, 322
8.14. Data and Control Faults—The Communications Subsystem, 323
8.14.1. Damaged Data, 323
8.14.2. Managing Damaged Data, 324
8.15. The Power Subsystem, 333
8.15.1. Full Operation, 334
8.15.2. Reduced Operation, 334
8.15.3. Backup Operation, 335
8.16. Peripheral Devices—Built-In Self-Test (BIST), 335
8.16.1. Self-Tests, 336
8.16.2. Busses, 337
8.16.3. ROM Memory, 339
8.16.4. RAM Memory, 339
8.17. Failure Modes and Effects Analysis, 340
8.18. Summary, 342
8.19. Review Questions, 342
8.20. Thought Questions, 343
8.21. Problems, 344
Chapter 9. Embedded Systems Design and Development, 346
9.0. Introduction, 346
9.1. System Design and Development, 348
9.1.1. Getting Ready—Start Thinking, 348
9.1.2. Getting Started, 349
9.2. Life-Cycle Models, 350
9.2.1. The Waterfall Model, 351
9.2.2. The V Cycle Model, 352
9.2.3. The Spiral Model, 353
9.2.4. Rapid Prototyping—Incremental, 354
9.3. Problem Solving—Five Steps to Design, 354
9.4. The Design Process, 355
9.5. Identifying the Requirements, 356
9.6. Formulating the Requirements Specification, 358
9.6.1. The Environment, 359
9.6.2. The System, 360
9.7. The System Design Specification, 366
9.7.1. The System, 367
9.7.2. Quantifying the System, 367
9.8. System Specifications versus System Requirements, 375
9.9. Partitioning and Decomposing a System, 376
9.9.1. Initial Thoughts, 376
9.9.2. Coupling, 378
9.9.3. Cohesion, 379
9.9.4. More Considerations, 380
9.10. Functional Design, 380
9.11. Architectural Design, 384
9.11.1. Mapping Functions to Hardware, 384
9.11.2. Hardware and Software Specification and Design, 386
9.12. Functional Model versus Architectural Model, 388
9.12.1. The Functional Model, 388
9.12.2. The Architectural Model, 389
9.12.3. The Need for Both Models, 389
9.13. Prototyping, 389
9.13.1. Implementation, 390
9.13.2. Analyzing the System Design, 390
9.14. Other Considerations, 392
9.14.1. Capitalization and Reuse, 392
Capitalization, 392
Reuse, 392
9.14.2. Requirements Traceability and Management, 393
Requirements Traceability, 393
Requirements Management, 393
9.15. Archiving the Project, 393
9.16. Summary, 395
9.17. Review Questions, 395
9.18. Thought Questions, 396
9.19. Problems, 398
Chapter 10. Hardware Test and Debug, 401
10.0. Introduction, 401
10.1. Some Vocabulary, 401
10.2. Putting Together a Strategy, 402
10.3. Formulating a Plan, 403
10.4. Formalizing the Plan—Writing a Specification, 405
10.5. Executing the Plan—The Test Procedure and Test Cases, 406
10.6. Applying the Strategy—Egoless Design, 406
10.7. Applying the Strategy—Design Reviews, 407
10.8. Applying the Strategy—Module Debug and Test, 407
10.8.1. Black Box Tests, 408
10.8.2. White Box Tests, 409
10.8.3. Gray Box Tests, 409
10.9. Applying the Strategy—The First Steps, 409
10.9.1. The Parts, 410
10.9.2. Initial Tests and Measurements—Before Applying Power, 411
10.9.3. Initial Tests and Measurements—Immediately after Applying Power, 411
10.10. Applying the Strategy—Debugging and Testing, 412
10.10.1. The Reset System, 412
10.10.2. The Clocks and Timing, 412
10.10.3. The Inputs and Outputs, 413
10.10.4. Sudden Failure during Debugging, 413
10.11. Testing and Debugging Combinational Logic, 415
10.12. Path Sensitizing, 415
10.12.1. Single Variable-Single Path, 416
Testing, 416
Debugging, 416
10.12.2. Single Variable-Two Paths, 417
10.13. Masking and Untestable Faults, 418
10.14. Single Variable-Multiple Paths, 419
10.15. Bridge Faults, 420
10.16. Debugging—Sequential Logic, 421
10.17. Scan Design Testing, 423
10.18. Boundary-Scan Testing, 426
10.19. Memories and Memory Systems, 427
10.20. Applying the Strategy—Subsystem and System Test, 427
10.21. Applying the Strategy—Testing for Our Customer, 428
10.21.1. Alpha and Beta Tests, 428
10.21.2. Verification Tests, 428
10.21.3. Validation Tests, 428
10.21.4. Acceptance Tests, 429
10.21.5. Production Tests, 429
10.22. Self-Test, 429
10.22.1. On Demand, 429
10.22.2. In Background, 429
10.23. Summary, 430
10.24. Review Questions, 430
10.25. Thought Questions, 431
10.26. Problems, 432
Part Three. Doing the Work, 433
Chapter 11. Real-Time Kernels and Operating Systems, 433
11.0. Introduction, 433
11.1. Tasks and Things, 434
11.2. Programs and Processes, 435
11.3. The CPU Is a Resource, 436
11.3.1. Setting a Schedule, 437
11.3.2. Changing Context, 438
11.4. Threads—Lightweight and Heavyweight, 438
11.4.1. A Single Thread, 439
11.4.2. Multiple Threads, 439
11.5. Sharing Resources, 440
11.5.1. Memory Resource Management, 441
11.5.2. Process-Level Management, 442
11.5.3. Reentrant Code, 442
11.6. Foreground/Background Systems, 442
11.7. The Operating System, 443
11.8. The Real-Time Operating System (RTOS), 444
11.9. Operating System Architecture, 444
11.10. Tasks and Task Control Blocks, 445
11.10.1. The Task, 445
11.10.2. The Task Control Block, 446
11.10.3. A Simple Kernel, 448
11.10.4. Interrupts Revisited, 451
11.11. Memory Management Revisited, 455
11.11.1. Duplicate Hardware Context, 456
11.11.2. Task Control Blocks, 457
11.11.3. Stacks, 457
Runtime Stack, 458
Application Stacks, 459
Multiprocessing Stacks, 459
11.12. Summary, 460
11.13. Review Questions, 460
11.14. Thought Questions, 461
11.15. Problems, 461
Chapter 12. Tasks and Task Management, 463
12.0. Introduction, 463
12.1. Time, Time-Based Systems, and Reactive Systems, 464
12.1.1. Time, 464
12.1.2. Reactive and Time-Based Systems, 464
12.2. Task Scheduling, 466
12.2.1. CPU Utilization, 467
12.2.2. Scheduling Decisions, 467
12.2.3. Scheduling Criteria, 468
12.3. Scheduling Algorithms, 469
12.3.1. Asynchronous Interrupt Event Driven, 470
12.3.2. Polled and Polled with a Timing Element, 470
12.3.3. State Based, 471
12.3.4. Synchronous Interrupt Event Driven, 471
12.3.5. Combined Interrupt Event Driven, 472
12.3.6. Foreground-Background, 472
12.3.7. Time-Shared Systems, 472
12.3.8. Priority Schedule, 473
12.4. Real-Time Scheduling Considerations, 475
12.5. Algorithm Evaluation, 476
12.5.1. Deterministic Modeling, 476
12.5.2. Queuing Models, 477
12.5.3. Simulation, 478
12.5.4. Implementation, 478
12.6. Tasks, Threads, and Communication, 478
12.6.1. Getting Started, 478
12.6.2. Intertask/Interthread Communication, 479
12.6.3. Shared Variables, 479
12.6.4. Messages, 483
12.7. Task Cooperation, Synchronization, and Sharing, 487
12.7.1. Critical Sections and Synchronization, 488
12.7.2. Flags, 491
12.7.3. Token Passing, 493
12.7.4. Interrupts, 493
12.7.5. Semaphores, 494
12.7.6. Process Synchronization, 495
12.7.7. Spin Lock and Busy Waiting, 496
12.7.8. Counting Semaphores, 496
12.8. Talking and Sharing in Space, 497
12.8.1. The Bounded Buffer Problem, 497
12.8.2. The Readers and Writers Problem, 499
12.9. Monitors, 501
12.9.1. Condition Variables, 502
12.9.2. Bounded Buffer Problem with Monitor, 503
12.10. Starvation, 504
12.11. Deadlocks, 504
12.12. Summary, 505
12.13. Review Questions, 505
12.14. Thought Questions, 506
12.15. Problems, 506
Chapter 13. Deadlocks, 510
13.0. Introduction, 510
13.1. Sharing Resources, 510
13.2. System Model, 511
13.3. Deadlock Model, 512
Necessary Conditions, 512
13.4. A Graph Theoretic Tool—The Resource Allocation Graph, 513
13.5. Handling Deadlocks, 515
13.6. Deadlock Prevention, 516
13.6.1. Mutual Exclusion, 516
13.6.2. Hold and Wait, 516
13.6.3. No Preemption, 516
13.6.4. Circular Wait, 517
13.7. Deadlock Avoidance, 517
13.7.1. Algorithms Based on the Resource Allocation Graph, 518
13.7.2. Banker's Algorithm and Safe States, 519
13.8. Deadlock Detection, 522
13.8.1. Detection in a Single-Instance Environment, 522
13.8.2. Deadlock Recovery, 522
13.9. Summary, 524
13.10. Review Questions, 524
13.11. Thought Questions, 524
13.12. Problems, 525
Chapter 14. Performance Analysis and Optimization, 528
14.0. Introduction, 528
14.1. Getting Started, 529
14.2. Performance or Efficiency Measures, 529
14.2.1. Introduction, 529
14.2.2. The System, 530
14.2.3. Some Limitations, 531
14.3. Complexity Analysis—A High-Level Measure, 531
14.4. The Methodology, 533
14.4.1. A Simple Experiment, 533
14.4.2. Working with Big Numbers, 534
14.4.3. Asymptotic Complexity, 534
14.5. Comparing Algorithms, 535
14.5.1. Big-O Notation, 535
14.5.2. Big-O Arithmetic, 536
14.6. Analyzing Code, 537
14.6.1. Constant Time Statements, 537
14.6.2. Looping Constructs, 538
For loops, 538
While Loops, 539
14.6.3. Sequences of Statements, 539
14.6.4. Conditional Statements, 540
14.6.5. Function Calls, 540
14.7. Analyzing Algorithms, 541
14.7.1. Analyzing Search, 541
14.7.2. Analyzing Sort, 542
14.8. Analyzing Data Structures, 543
14.8.1. Array, 544
14.8.2. Linked List, 544
14.9. Instructions in Detail, 545
14.9.1. Getting Started, 545
14.9.2. Flow of Control, 546
Sequential, 546
Branch, 546
Loop, 547
Function Call, 547
14.9.3. Analyzing the Flow of Control—Two Views, 547
Sequential Flow, 548
Branch, 548
Loop, 549
Function Call, 549
Co-routine, 552
Interrupt Call, 552
14.10. Time, Etc.—A More Detailed Look, 553
Metrics, 553
14.11. Response Time, 554
14.11.1. Polled Loops, 554
14.11.2. Co-routine, 555
14.11.3. Interrupt-Driven Environment, 555
Preemptive Schedule, 556
Nonpreemptive Schedule, 556
14.12. Time Loading, 556
14.12.1. Instruction Counting, 557
14.12.2. Simulation, 557
14.12.3. Timers, 558
14.12.4. Instrumentation, 558
14.13. Memory Loading, 559
14.13.1. Memory Map, 559
14.13.2. Designing a Memory Map, 560
Instruction/Firmware Area, 560
RAM Area, 560
Stack Area, 561
14.14. Evaluating Performance, 561
Early Stages, 562
Midstages, 562
Later Stages, 562
14.15. Thoughts on Performance Optimization, 562
Questions to Ask, 563
14.16. Performance Optimization, 563
Common Mistakes, 563
14.17. Tricks of the Trade, 564
14.18. Hardware Accelerators, 569
14.19. Optimizing for Power Consumption, 569
14.19.1. Software, 570
14.19.2. Hardware, 571
14.20. Caches and Performance, 574
14.21. Trade-offs, 576
14.22. Summary, 576
14.23. Review Questions, 576
14.24. Thought Questions, 577
14.25. Problems, 578
Part Four. Interacting with the Physical World, 581
Chapter 15. Working Outside of the Processor I: A Model of Interprocess Communication, 581
15.0. Communication and Synchronization with the Outside World, 581
15.1. First Steps: Understanding the Problem, 582
15.2. Interprocess Interaction Revisited, 583
15.3. The Model, 585
15.3.1. Information, 585
15.3.2. Places, 585
15.3.3. Control and Synchronization, 586
15.3.4. Transport, 586
15.4. Exploring the Model, 587
15.4.1. The Transport Mechanism, 587
15.4.2. Control and Synchronization, 592
15.4.3. Information Flow, 592
15.4.4. Places, 594
15.5. Summary, 595
15.6. Review Questions, 595
15.7. Thought Questions, 595
Chapter 16. Working Outside of the Processor I: Refining the Model of Interprocess Communication, 597
16.0. Communication and Synchronization with the Outside World, 597
16.1. The Local Device Model, 598
16.1.1. Control, Synchronization, and Places, 598
16.1.2. Information—Data, 601
16.1.3. Transport, 601
16.2. Implementing the Local Device Model—A First Step, 601
16.2.1. An Overview, 601
16.2.2. Main Memory Address Space—Memory-Mapped I/O, 603
Address Bus, 603
Data Bus, 604
Control Bus, 604
Read, 604
Write, 605
Bidirectional Bus, 605
16.2.3. I/O Ports—Program-Controlled I/O, 607
16.2.4. The Peripheral Processor, 607
16.3. Implementing the Local Device Model—A Second Step, 608
16.3.1. Information Interchange—An Event, 609
16.3.2. Information Interchange—A Shared Variable, 609
16.3.3. Information Interchange—A Message, 610
16.4. Implementing an Event-Driven Exchange—Interrupts and Polling, 610
16.4.1. Polling, 610
16.4.2. Interrupts, 612
16.4.3. Masking Interrupts, 617
16.5. A Message, 618
16.5.1. Asynchronous Information Exchange, 619
Strobes, 619
Strobe with Acknowledge, 619
Full Handshake, 620
Resynchronization, 620
Analysis, 621
16.5.2. Synchronous Information Exchange, 622
16.6. The Remote Device Model, 625
16.6.1. Places and Information, 626
16.6.2. Control and Synchronization, 626
16.6.3. Transport, 626
16.7. Implementing the Remote Device Model—A First Step, 627
16.7.1. The OSI and TCP/IP Protocol Stacks, 628
OSI—Physical Layer, 628
OSI—Data Link Layer, 628
TCP/IP—Host to Network, 629
OSI—Network Layer, 629
TCP/IP—Internet Layer, 629
OSI—Transport Layer, 630
TCP/IP—Transport Layer, 630
OSI—Session Layer, 630
OSI—Presentation Layer, 630
OSI—Application Layer, 630
TCP/IP—Application Layer, 631
16.7.2. The Models, 631
16.8. Implementing the Remote Device Model—A Second Step, 633
16.8.1. The Messages, 633
16.8.2. The Message Structure, 633
16.8.3. Message Control and Synchronization, 634
16.9. Working with Remote Tasks, 635
16.9.1. Preliminary Thoughts on Working with Remote Tasks, 635
Local vs. Remote Addresses and Data, 636
Repeated Task Execution, 636
Node Failure, Link Failure, Message Loss, 637
16.9.2. Procedures and Remote Procedures, 637
16.9.3. Node Failure, Link Failure, Message Loss, 641
16.10. Group Multicast Revisited, 643
Atomic Multicast, 643
Reliable Multicast, 643
16.11. Connecting to Distributed Processes—Pipes, Sockets, and Streams, 643
16.11.1. Pipes, 644
16.11.2. Sockets, 644
16.11.3. Stream Communication, 645
16.12. Summary, 646
16.13. Review Questions, 646
16.14. Thought Questions, 647
16.15. Problems, 648
Chapter 17. Working Outside of the Processor II: Interfacing to Local Devices, 649
17.0. Shared Variable I/O—Interfacing to Peripheral Devices, 649
17.1. The Shared Variable Exchange, 650
17.2. Generating Analog Signals, 650
17.2.1. Binary Weighted Digital-to-Analog Converter, 650
17.2.2. R/2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog Converter, 653
17.3. Common Measurements, 655
17.3.1. Voltage, 655
17.3.2. Current, 655
17.3.3. Resistance, 656
17.4. Measuring Voltage, 656
17.4.1. Dual Slope Analog-to-Digital Conversion, 656
17.4.2. Successive Approximation Analog-to-Digital Conversion, 660
Sample and Hold, 662
17.4.3. VCO Analog-to-Digital Conversion, 663
17.5. Measuring Resistance, 664
17.6. Measuring Current, 665
17.7. Measuring Temperature, 666
17.7.1. Sensors, 666
17.7.2. Making the Measurement, 667
17.7.3. Working with Nonlinear Devices, 668
17.8. Generating Digital Signals, 670
17.8.1. Motors and Motor Control, 670
17.8.2. DC Motors, 670
17.8.3. Servo Motors, 671
17.8.4. Stepper Motors, 671
17.9. Controlling DC and Servo Motors, 672
17.9.1. DC Motors, 672
17.9.2. Servo Motors, 673
17.9.3. Controlling Stepper Motors, 674
17.9.4. Motor Drive Circuitry, 676
17.9.5. Motor Drive Noise, 678
17.10. LEDs and LED Displays, 678
17.10.1. Individual LEDs, 678
17.10.2. Multi-LED Displays, 679
17.11. Measuring Digital Signals, 681
17.11.1. The Approach, 681
17.11.2. Working with Asynchronous Signals, 682
17.11.3. Buffering Input Signals, 683
17.11.4. Inside vs. Outside, 683
17.11.5. Measuring Frequency and Time Interval, 683
17.12. Summary, 687
17.13. Review Questions, 688
17.14. Thought Questions, 688
17.15. Problems, 689
Chapter 18. Working Outside of the Processor III: Interfacing to Remote Devices, 693
18.0. Common Network-Based I/O Architectures, 693
18.1. Network-Based Systems, 694
18.2. RS-232/EIA-232—Asynchronous Serial Communication, 694
18.2.1. Introduction, 694
18.2.2. The EIA-232 Standard, 695
What It Is …, 696
What They Think It Is …, 696
18.2.3. EIA-232 Addressing, 698
18.2.4. Asynchronous Serial Communication, 698
18.2.5. Configuring the Interface, 698
18.2.6. Data Recovery and Timing, 699
18.2.7. EIA-232 Interface Signals, 700
18.2.8. An Implementation, 700
18.3. The Universal Serial Bus—Synchronous Serial Communication, 701
18.3.1. Background, 702
18.3.2. The Universal Serial Bus Architecture, 702
18.3.3. The Universal Serial Bus Protocol, 702
18.3.4. USB Devices, 704
18.3.5. Transfer Types, 704
18.3.6. Device Descriptors, 704
18.3.7. Network Configuration, 705
18.3.8. USB Transactions, 706
18.3.9. USB Interface Signals, 707
18.3.10. The Physical Environment, 708
Low-speed Cables, 708
High-speed Cables, 708
Cables and Cable Power, 709
18.3.11. Detecting Device Attachment and Speed, 709
18.3.12. Differential Pair Signaling, 710
18.3.13. Implementation, 710
18.4. I2C—A Local Area Network, 710
18.4.1. The Architecture, 711
18.4.2. Electrical Considerations, 712
18.4.3. Basic Operation, 712
18.4.4. Flow of Control, 713
18.4.5. Multiple Masters, 713
Arbitration, 714
Synchronization, 714
18.4.6. Using the I²C Bus, 715
18.5. The Controller Area Network—The CAN Bus, 715
18.5.1. The Architecture, 715
18.5.2. Electrical Considerations, 716
18.5.3. Message Types, 716
18.5.4. Message Format, 717
18.5.5. Basic Operation, 718
Synchronization, 718
Error Management, 718
Transmission and Arbitration, 719
18.5.6. Using the CAN Bus, 719
18.6. Summary, 720
18.7. Review Questions, 720
18.8. Thought Questions, 721
18.9. Problems, 721
Chapter 19. Programmable Logic Devices, 723
19.0. Introduction, 723
19.1. Why Use Programmable Logic Devices?, 724
19.2. Basic Concepts, 725
19.3. Basic Configurations, 728
19.3.1. The (P)ROM, 728
19.3.2. Programmable Array Logic—PAL, 728
19.3.3. Programmable Logic Array—PLA, 729
19.3.4. Programmable Logic Sequencer—PLS, 729
19.3.5. PLA vs. PAL vs. (P)ROM, 729
19.4. Programmable and Reprogrammable Technologies, 730
19.4.1. Programmable Technologies, 730
19.4.2. Reprogrammable Technologies, 730
19.5. Architectures, 732
19.5.1. PLDs, 732
19.5.2. CPLD, 734
19.5.3. FPGAs, 735
19.6. Example PLD Devices, 737
19.6.1. Xilinx XC 9500XL™ Family, 737
19.6.2. Altera Flex 10K™ FPGA, 739
19.6.3. Input/Output and Internal Interconnection, 743
19.6.4. Cypress CY8C21x23 PSOC™, 744
The CPU Core, 745
The Digital Subsystem, 745
The Analog Subsystem, 745
The System Resources, 746
19.7. The Design Process, 746
19.8. Design Examples, 747
19.8.1. Lane Departure Detection Implementation and Acceleration, 747
19.8.2. Local Area Tracking System—LATS with uCLinux™ OS, 750
19.9. Summary, 752
19.10. Review Questions, 752
19.11. Thought Questions, 753
Appendix A. Verilog Overview: The Verilog Hardware Description Language, 754
A.0. Introduction, 754
A.1. An Overview of a Verilog Program, 755
A.2. Creating a Verilog Program, 755
A.2.1. Some Concepts in a Verilog Source File, 756
A.2.2. Modules, 756
Module Name, 756
Inputs and Outputs Declarations, 757
Nets and Variables, 757
Declaring Multi-Bit Signals, 758
Subsets of Multi-Bit Expressions, 759
$display and $monitor Statements, 759
$stop and $finish Statements, 760
$time Statement, 760
A.3. Three Models—The Gate Level, the Dataflow, and the Behavioral, 761
A.3.1. The Structural/Gate-Level Model, 761
Combinational Logic, 762
A.3.2. The Dataflow Model, 767
A.3.3. The Behavioral Model, 771
A.4. Testing and Verifying the Circuit, 781
A.4.1. The Circuit Module, 782
A.4.2. The Test Module, 782
Clocks and Resets, 784
A.4.3. The Test Bench, 784
A.4.4. Performing the Simulation, 784
A.5. Summary, 785
References, 786
Index, 793
Endpaper, rm-1

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