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Copyright, iv
Preface, v
Acknowledgments, ix
Contents, xi
Summary of Research Examples, xxii
Chapter 1. Scientific Thinking in Psychology, 1
Why Take This Course?, 3
Ways of Knowing, 6
Authority, 6
Use of Reason, 6
Experience, 7
The Ways of Knowing and Science, 8
Science as a Way of Knowing, 9
Science Assumes Determinism, 10
Science Makes Systematic Observations, 11
Science Produces Public Knowledge, 11
Science Produces Data-Based Conclusions, 14
Science Produces Tentative Conclusions, 16
Science Asks Answerable Questions, 16
Science Develops Theories that Can Be Disproven, 17
Psychological Science and Pseudoscience, 18
Recognizing Pseudoscience, 19
Associates with True Science, 20
Relies on Anecdotal Evidence, 23
Sidesteps Disproof, 24
Reduces Complex Phenomena to Overly Simplistic Concepts, 25
The Goals of Research in Psychology, 26
Description, 26
Prediction, 26
Explanation, 27
Application, 27
A Passion for Research in Psychology (Part I), 27
Eleanor Gibson (1910–2002), 28
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), 30
Chapter 2. Ethics in Psychological Research, 37
Developing the APA Code of Ethics, 38
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans, 44
Judging Benefits and Costs: The IRB, 44
Informed Consent and Deception in Research, 47
Informed Consent and Special Populations, 55
Treating Participants Well, 57
Research Ethics and the Internet, 59
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals, 61
The Issue of Animal Rights, 61
Using Animals in Psychological Research, 64
The APA Code for Animal Research, 66
Justifying the Study, 66
Caring for the Animals, 66
Using Animals for Educational Purposes, 67
Scientific Fraud, 67
Data Falsification, 68
Chapter 3. Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology, 77
Varieties of Psychological Research, 78
Basic versus Applied Research, 78
The Setting: Laboratory versus Field Research, 80
Quantitative versus Qualitative Research, 84
Asking Empirical Questions, 85
Operational Definitions, 85
Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and Serendipity, 87
Developing Research from Theory, 90
The Nature of Theory, 90
The Relationship Between Theory and Data, 92
Attributes of Good Theories, 95
Falsification, 95
Parsimony, 98
Misunderstandings about Theories, 99
Developing Research from Other Research, 100
Research Teams and the “What’s Next?” Question, 100
Replication and Extension, 102
Creative Thinking in Science, 103
Reviewing the Literature, 106
Computerized Database Searches, 106
Search Tips, 107
Chapter 4. Measurement and Data Analysis, 117
What to Measure—Varieties of Behavior, 118
Developing Measures from Constructs, 119
Evaluating Measures, 124
Reliability, 124
Validity, 125
Reliability and Validity, 128
Scales of Measurement, 129
Nominal Scales, 129
Ordinal Scales, 131
Interval Scales, 131
Ratio Scales, 133
Statistical Analysis, 134
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics, 135
Descriptive Statistics, 135
Inferential Statistics, 145
Hypothesis Testing, 147
Type I and Type II Errors, 148
Inferential Analysis, 149
Interpreting Failures to Reject H₀, 150
Going Beyond Hypothesis Testing, 151
Effect Size, 152
Confidence Intervals, 153
Power, 153
Chapter 5. Introduction to Experimental Research, 161
Essential Features of Experimental Research, 163
Establishing Independent Variables, 165
Varieties of Independent Variables, 165
Control Groups, 166
Controlling Extraneous Variables, 167
Measuring Dependent Variables, 169
Manipulated versus Subject Variables, 170
Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables, 173
The Validity of Experimental Research, 177
Statistical Conclusion Validity, 177
Construct Validity, 177
External Validity, 178
Other Populations, 178
Other Environments, 181
Other Times, 182
A Note of Caution, 182
Internal Validity, 183
Threats to Internal Validity, 184
Pre-Post Studies, 184
History and Maturation, 185
Regression, 185
Testing and Instrumentation, 187
Participant Problems, 187
Subject Selection Effects, 188
Attrition, 189
Chapter 6. Control Problems in Experimental Research, 195
Between-Subjects Designs, 196
The Problem of Creating Equivalent Groups, 198
Random Assignment, 198
Matching, 199
Within-Subjects Designs, 203
The Problem of Controlling Sequence Effects, 206
Testing Once per Condition, 207
Complete Counterbalancing, 207
Partial Counterbalancing, 207
Testing More Than Once per Condition, 208
Reverse Counterbalancing, 210
Block Randomization, 210
Problems with Counterbalancing, 212
Control Problems in Developmental Research, 214
Problems with Biasing, 218
Experimenter Bias, 218
Controlling for Experimenter Bias, 219
Participant Bias, 221
Controlling for Participant Bias, 224
Chapter 7. Experimental Design I: Single-Factor Designs, 233
Single Factor—Two Levels, 234
Between-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs, 236
Within-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs, 239
Analyzing Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs, 243
Single Factor—More Than Two Levels, 244
Between-Subjects, Multilevel Designs, 245
Within-Subjects, Multilevel Designs, 250
Presenting the Data, 251
Types of Graphs, 252
Analyzing Single-Factor, Multilevel Designs, 254
Control Group Designs, 256
Placebo Control Groups, 256
Waiting List Control Groups, 257
Yoked Control Groups, 261
Chapter 8. Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs, 269
Factorial Essentials, 270
Identifying Factorial Designs, 271
Outcomes—Main Effects and Interactions, 273
Main Effects, 273
Interactions, 277
Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions, 281
Varieties of Factorial Designs, 287
Mixed Factorial Designs, 288
Factorials with Subject and Manipulated Variables: P × E Designs, 291
Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs, 297
Analyzing Factorial Designs, 299
Chapter 9. Correlational Research, 307
Psychology’s Two Disciplines, 308
Correlation and Regression—The Basics, 311
Positive and Negative Correlations, 311
Scatterplots, 313
Assuming Linearity, 314
Restricting the Range, 316
Coefficient of Determination—r², 317
Regression Analysis—Making Predictions, 318
Interpreting Correlations, 320
Correlations and Causality, 321
Directionality, 321
Third Variables, 323
Caution: Correlational Statistics versus Correlational Research, 325
Using Correlations, 327
The Need for Correlational Research, 327
Varieties of Correlational Research, 328
Multivariate Analysis, 334
Multiple Regression, 334
Factor Analysis, 336
Chapter 10. Quasi-Experimental Designs and Applied Research, 343
Beyond the Laboratory, 345
Applied Psychology in Historical Context, 347
Design Problems in Applied Research, 350
Quasi-Experimental Designs, 351
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs, 352
Outcomes, 353
Regression and Matching, 355
Interrupted Time Series Designs, 360
Outcomes, 361
Variations on the Basic Time Series Design, 364
Research Using Archival Data, 365
Program Evaluation, 369
Planning for Programs—Needs Analysis, 371
Monitoring Programs—Formative Evaluation, 373
Evaluating Outcomes—Summative Evaluation, 374
Weighing Costs—Cost-Effectiveness Analysis, 376
A Note on Qualitative Analysis, 377
Chapter 11. Small N Designs, 385
Research in Psychology Began with Small N, 386
Reasons for Small N Designs, 391
Misleading Results from Statistical Summaries of Grouped Data, 391
Practical Problems with Large N Designs, 393
The Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 394
Operant Conditioning, 394
Applied Behavior Analysis, 398
Small N Designs in Applied Behavior Analysis, 401
Elements of Single-Subject Designs, 401
Withdrawal Designs, 402
Multiple Baseline Designs, 404
Changing Criterion Designs, 408
Other Designs, 410
Evaluating Single-Subject Designs, 412
Case Study Designs, 414
Evaluating Case Studies, 416
Chapter 12. Observational and Survey Research Methods, 423
Observational Research, 424
Varieties of Observational Research, 424
Naturalistic Observation, 425
Participant Observation, 426
Challenges Facing Observational Methods, 428
Absence of Control, 429
Observer Bias, 430
Participant Reactivity, 431
Ethics, 431
Survey Research, 435
Probability Sampling, 438
Random Sampling, 440
Stratified Sampling, 440
Cluster Sampling, 442
Varieties of Survey Methods, 442
Interviews, 443
Phone Surveys, 443
Electronic Surveys, 444
Written Surveys, 445
Creating an Effective Survey, 446
Types of Survey Questions or Statements, 446
Assessing Memory and Knowledge, 449
Adding Demographic Information, 450
A Key Problem: Survey Wording, 450
Surveys and Ethics, 452
EPILOGUE, 461
What I Learned in My Research Methods Course, 461
A Passion for Research in Psychology (Part II), 463
Elliot Aronson, 464
Elizabeth Loftus, 466
Appendix A. Communicating the Results of Research in Psychology, 469
Research Reports, APA Style, 469
General Guidelines, 470
Writing Style, 470
Reducing Bias in Language, 471
Avoiding Plagiarism, 474
Miscellaneous, 475
Main Sections of the Lab Report, 476
Title Page, 476
The Manuscript Page Header/Page Number, 476
Running Head, 476
Title/Author/Affiliation, 477
Abstract, 478
Introduction, 478
APA Citation Format, 479
Method, 479
Results, 480
Reporting the Data: Statistics, 480
Portraying the Data: Tables and Figures, 481
Discussion, 482
References, 482
Presentations and Posters, 483
Tips for Presenting a Paper, 483
Tips for Presenting a Poster, 484
A Sample Research Report, 486
Appendix B. The Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association, 501
Category 8: Research and Publication, 501
Appendix C. Using Statistics, 507
Making Intelligent Use of Statistics, 508
Assessing Relationships, 508
Example 1. Pearson’s r, 508
Example 2. Regression Analysis, 510
Assessing Differences, 511
Example 3. χ²—Goodness of Fit, 511
Example 4. χ²—Two Samples, 512
Example 5. Mann-Whitney U Test, 514
Example 6. t Test—Independent Groups, 516
Example 7. t Test—Dependent Groups, 518
Example 8. 1-Way ANOVA—Independent Groups, 520
Example 9. 1-Way ANOVA—Repeated Measures, 523
Example 10. 2-Way ANOVA—2 × 2 Independent Groups, 525
Appendix D. Statistical Tables, 529
Table D.1. Random Numbers, 530
Table D.2. Critical Values for Pearson’s r, 532
Table D.3. Critical Values for Chi-Square (χ²), 532
Table D.4. Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney U Test, 533
Table D.5. Critical Values from the t Distribution, 535
Table D.6. Critical Values from the F Distribution, 536
Appendix E. Answers to End-of-Chapter Applications Exercises, 541
GLOSSARY, 553
REFERENCES, 563
NAME INDEX, 579
SUBJECT INDEX, 585

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