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Urban Geography, 2nd Edition

by Kaplan, David, Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio; Wheeler, James O., Univ. of Georgia; Holloway, Steven, Univ. of California

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Copyright, ii
Preface, iii
Acknowledgments, v
Contents, vii
1. An Introduction To The Changing Field of Urban Geography, 1
Introduction, 1
Box 1.1, 4
The Field of Urban Geography, 5
The Origin and Evolution of Urban Geography, 6
The Four Traditions, 1900–1970, 6
The Physical Tradition, 6
The Human-Environment Tradition, 7
The Regional Tradition, 8
The Spatial Tradition, 9
Precursors of Spatial Analysis in Urban Geography, 9
European Influences on Spatial Analysis in Urban Geography, 10
Extradisciplinary Influences on Spatial Analysis in Urban Geography, 10
Critiques of Spatial Analysis in Urban Geography, 11
Behavioral Urban Geography, 11
Marxist Interpretations, 11
Humanistic Urban Geography, 12
Social Theory, 12
Postmodernism, 13
Geographic Information Science and Urban Geography, 14
Technology and Urban Geography Box 1.2, 15
Substantive Trends in Urban Geography, 16
Urbanization and Global Cities, 16
Feminist Urban Geography, 17
Urban Culture Geography, 18
Urban Historical Geography, 19
Locational Analysis in Urban Geography, 20
The Chicago and Los Angeles Schools of Urban Geography, 21
The Chicago School, 21
The Los Angeles School, 21
The New Urbanism, 22
Introduction to this Textbook, 22
Wrapping Up, 23
Readings, 24
2. The Origins and Development of Cities, 26
What Are Cities?, 26
Preconditions to Urban Formation, 28
Box 2.1, 28
Ecology, Technology, and Power, 29
Theories of Urban Origins, 30
Agricultural Surplus, 30
Religious Causes, 30
Defensive Needs, 31
Trading Requirements, 32
Patterns of Early Urbanization, 33
Locations of Early Cities, 33
Diffusion of Urbanization, 33
Technology and Urban Geography Box 2.2, 35
Urban Evolution and Early Economic Imperatives: Traditional Cities, 36
The Early City-States: Sumeria, 36
Other Ancient Cities, 39
Egypt, 39
Indus Valley, 40
Northern China, 40
Mesoamerican Cities, 40
Imperial Cities, 42
Box 2.3, 42
Imperial Rome, 43
Rome’s Contribution to Urban Development, 45
Cities as Engines of Economic Growth: Capitalism, Industrialism, and Urbanization, 46
The New Trading Cities, 46
Box 2.4, 47
A Capitalist Economy, 48
The Revival of Urbanization, 48
Northern Italy, 50
Northern Europe, 50
Structure and Form of the Trading Cities, 50
Political and Economic Structure, 50
Spatial Form, 52
Box 2.5, 53
Box 2.6, 54
Industrial Cities, 54
Industrial Revolution, 56
Changing Logic of City Location, 57
Elements of the Industrial City, 59
Wrapping Up, 59
Readings, 60
3. The Evolution of The American Urban System, 61
The American Urban Hierarchy, 1630–2007, 62
Colonial Imprints, 62
The Early Development of the U.S. Urban Hierarchy, 63
Recent Shifts in the U.S. Urban Population, 64
Metropolitan Dominance, 67
Box 3.1, 68
Pred’s Model, 69
Urbanization and Industrialization Among U.S. Urban Centers, 71
Borchert’s Transport Epochs and American Metropolitan Growth, 71
Horse and Wagon Epoch, 1790–1830, 71
Regional Railroad, 1830–1870, 71
National Railroad Network Epoch, 1870–1920, 71
Automobile-Airplane Epoch, 1920–1960, 72
Urbanization Processes, 73
Urbanization Curves, 73
Central Place Theory, 73
Centrality, 74
Range of a Good, 74
Threshold, 74
Hexagonal Trade Areas, 75
Rank-Size Rule, 75
Kondratiev Waves, 76
Urban Growth in America, 77
The Meyer-Wyckoff Frontier Cities Model, 77
The Vance Mercantile Cities Model, 78
Contemporary Urban-Economic Restructuring, 79
Empirical Examples, 79
Box 3.2, 80
Technology and Urban Geography Box 3.3, 82
Amenities, 82
Attracting Young Educated People, 84
Box 3.4, 85
Recent Metropolitan Population Shifts, 85
Wrapping Up, 86
Readings, 86
4. Globalization and The Urban System, 88
World Cities, 89
The World City Hierarchy, 89
Changing Functions of World Cities, 92
Capitalism, Power, and World Cities, 93
Examples of World City Globalization, 95
Powerful World Cities, 95
World Cities and Wealth, 95
Box 4.1, 96
U.S. Law Firms in World Cities, 99
Box 4.2, 100
Box 4.3, 101
Interconnections Among World Cities, 101
Interaction Among World Cities, 101
The Tourist World City, 103
New York and Los Angeles as Tourist Cities, 105
The Impact of 9/11, 105
Multinational Corporations, 107
U.S. Multinational Corporations, 107
The Wal-Mart Example, 109
From Bentonville to Beijing, 113
Micro-Multinationals, 113
Technology and Urban Geography Box 4.4, 114
Wrapping Up, 114
Readings, 116
5. Telecommunications and The City, 117
Box 5.1, 118
A History of Computing and the Development of the Internet, 119
Mainframe Computers, 120
Minicomputers to Personal Computers, 120
Telecommunications: Dispersal or Concentration?, 121
Telecommunications and Geographic dispersal, 121
Telecommunications and Geographic Concentration, 122
Front Office Activities, 123
Universities, 123
Web Sites, 124
National and Global Fiber-Optic Networks, 124
Fiber-Optic Cables, 125
U.S. Internet Urban Linkages, 126
Competition Between Fiber-Optics and Satellites, 128
Overnight Information Flows, 128
Telecommunications and Urban Society, 131
Technology and Urban Geography Box 5.2, 132
Box 5.3, 134
Telecommunications and the Transformation of Urban Space, 134
Telecommunications and Financial Markets, 136
Telecommunications and Office Economies, 136
Intrametropolitan Locations of Professional and Business Services, 137
Intrametropolitan Fiber-Optic Loops, 138
Wireless Telecommunications, 139
The Automobile as Wireless Internet, 140
Wrapping Up, 141
Readings, 141
6. Urban Land Use: The CBD and The Growth of The Suburbs, 143
Central-City Decline, 143
CBD Centrality, 144
The Development of Central Business Districts, 144
The Decline of CBD Centrality and the Rise of Agglomeration Economies, 146
CBD Agglomeration Linkages, 147
Traditional CBD Characteristics, 148
The CBD Core-Frame Concept, 148
Zones of CBD Assimilation and Discard, 149
Daytime-Nighttime CBD Populations, 150
Contemporary CBD Retailing, 151
CBD Redevelopment and Revitalization, 152
Packaging the Entrepreneurial CBD, 152
Contemporary CBD Activities, 153
Business and Professional Services in Atlanta, 153
Location of Accounting Services, 155
America’s New Downtowns, 155
Models of Suburban Evolution in North American Metropolises, 156
Location Rent and Urban Land Use, 156
Land and Property Values, 157
Erickson’s Model of the Evolution of the Suburban Space Economy, 157
Spillover and Specialization, 159
Dispersal and Diversification, 159
Infilling and Multinucleation, 159
The Hartshorn and Muller Model of Suburban Downtowns, 160
Sprawl, 160
Independence, 161
Magnets, 161
High Rise/High Tech, 161
Mature Town Center, 162
Beyond the Hartshorn and Muller Model: Twenty-First Century Big City Suburbs, 162
Suburban Sprawl, 162
Box 6.1, 163
Technology and Urban Geography Box 6.2, 164
Wrapping Up, 164
Box 6.3, 166
Readings, 166
7. Landscapes of Production, 167
Understanding the Economies of Cities, 167
Basic and Nonbasic Economic Activities, 168
Basic vs. Nonbasic Activites, 168
Multipliers, 168
Circular and Cumulative Causation, 169
Agglomeration, 170
Interurban Industrial Production and Location, 171
The Growth Pole Model, 171
The Stanback Model, 171
Manufacturing versus Service Cities, 173
Recent U.S. Manufacturing Changes, 174
The 1980s Rust Belt, 175
Box 7.1, 176
Technology and Urban Geography Box 7.2, 177
Human Talent and the Location of High-Technology Industry, 178
Box 7.3, 179
Intraurban Industrial Production and Location, 180
The Wheeler-Park Model, 180
The Product Cycle Model, 182
Box 7.4, 183
Political Economy Approaches, 185
Basic Concepts, 185
Circuits of Capital, 186
Wrapping Up, 188
Readings, 188
8. Foundations of Urban Social Landscapes, 190
Ecological Approach to Cities, 190
“Community Lost”: European Perspectives on Cities, 191
Box 8.1, 192
The Chicago School of Sociology, 194
Traditional Models of Urban Spatial Structure, 197
Burgess Concentric Zone Model, 197
Hoyt Sector Model, 197
Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model, 199
More Complex Models, 200
Social Area Analysis and Factorial Ecology, 200
Box 8.2, 201
The Urban Mosaic, 202
Contemporary Urban Social Space: Globalization, Postmodernism, and Cities of Difference, 203
Globalization: General Trends, 204
Elements of the Global City, 204
The Citadel, 205
The Enclave, 206
The Ghetto, 206
“In Between” Neighborhoods in the Global City, 206
The Gentrified City, 207
The Suburban City, 207
The Working-Class City, 208
Postmodern Urbanism, 208
Cities of Difference, 210
Women and the City, 211
Technology and Urban Geography Box 8.3, 212
Sexuality and the City, 214
Wrapping Up, 215
Box 8.4, 216
Readings, 218
9. Urban Housing Markets: Sprawl, Blight, and Regeneration, 220
Basics of Housing and Housing Markets, 220
Sectors of Housing Tenure, 221
Housing as a Commodity, 221
Housing Demand, 221
Box 9.1, 222
Box 9.2, 223
Housing Supply, 224
Housing Market Geographies, 224
Urban Ecology and Housing Markets: Invasion and Succession, 224
Filtering and Vacancy Chains, 225
Life-Cycle Notions of Neighborhood Change, 227
Market Realities: Ongoing Debates Over Equal Access to Housing, 227
Real Estate Agents and Differentiated Access, 228
Discrimination in Lending, 232
Accumulated Impacts of Housing Market Discrimination, 233
Box 9.3, 234
Housing Market Realities: Government Involvement, 235
Securing Home Ownership through Loan Guarantees, 236
A New System of Housing Finance: The Secondary Mortgage Market, 237
Sprawl and the Suburbanization of Housing, 238
Antecedents and Preconditions of Post–World War II Suburban Sprawl, 239
Technology and Urban Geography Box 9.4, 240
Postwar Sprawl, 243
Supply and Demand Factors, 244
Sprawl and the Federal Government: Housing Finance, 247
Sprawl and the Federal Government: Automobiles and Interstate Freeways, 247
“Blight” and the Fate of Inner–City Housing, 248
Blight and Growing Redevelopment Pressures, 249
The Housing Dynamics of Redevelopment, 249
Displacement and Public Housing, 250
Neighborhood Revitalization: Gentrification, 252
Wrapping Up, 254
Readings, 254
10. Segregation, Race, and Urban Poverty, 256
Current Patterns of Racial Residential Segregation, 257
Census 2000 Figures, 257
Black/White Patterns, 257
Box 10.1, 258
Hispanics and Asians, 260
Recent Change, 261
Hypersegregation, 263
What Causes Segregation?, 265
Race and the North American Ghetto, 266
The “First” North American Ghetto, 266
Dual Housing Markets, the “Color Line,” and Ghettos, 267
Postwar Institutionalized Ghettos, 268
Government-Supported Discrimination, 270
Public Housing and Urban Redevelopment, 270
Economic Transformations and the Outcast Ghetto, 272
Civil Rights, 273
Box 10.2, 274
Deindustrialization and Globalization, 274
Social/Spatial Isolation and the “Underclass” Question, 275
Poverty and the City, 276
Spatial Concentration of Urban Poverty, 276
Consequences of Concentrated Poverty: The Neighborhood Effects Debate, 278
Peer Effects, 279
Social Control, 280
Opportunities and Resources, 281
Institutions, Schools, and Businesses, 281
Stigma and Spatial Discrimination, 281
Evidence and Debates, 282
Morality and Responsibility, 283
Culture and Poverty versus Culture of Poverty, 283
Oppositional Culture/Culture of Segregation, 284
Responding to Urban Poverty, 284
War on Poverty, 285
Retrenchment, 286
Welfare Reform, 287
Enterprise Zones, 287
Moving to Opportunity/HOPE VI/ Homeownership, 287
Technology and Urban Geography Box 10.3, 288
Wrapping Up, 290
Readings, 291
11. Immigration, Ethnicity, and Urbanism, 293
The ERA of Immigration and U.S. Urbanization, 295
The New Catholic Arrivals, 295
Box 11.1, 296
Geography of Immigration, 297
Differences in Urban Orientation, 298
Reception of Immigrants, 298
Segregation Patterns, 299
The New European Immigration, 300
Urban Orientation of New Immigrants, 301
Neighborhood Locations, 303
Segregation Patterns, 303
Negative and Positive Impacts of Location, 304
The Ethnic Kaleidoscope of Today, 305
Immigration Legislation, 305
Immigrant Patterns, 306
Technology and Urban Geography Box 11.2, 308
Latino Migration and its Impact on Cities, 310
Mexicans, 312
Urbanization Trends, 312
Cubans, 313
Florida Concentration, 313
Puerto Ricans, 314
Spatial Patterns, 314
Box 11.3, 316
Latino Influences, 319
Significant Aspects, 319
New Asian Immigration, 320
Urban Orientation and Some Models of Asian Segregation, 321
Asian Indians, 323
Box 11.4, 324
Indochinese, 326
Koreans, 327
Asian Influences, 328
Wrapping Up, 329
Readings, 331
12. Metropolitan Governance and Fragmentation, 333
Urban Governance and the Growth of Services, 334
Expanding Urban Services, 334
Safety, 335
Education, 335
Infrastructure, 335
Box 12.1, 336
Financing the City, 338
Who Governs the City?, 340
Stages in Urban Governance, 340
Elite Dominance, 341
Machine Politics, 341
Reform Politics., 341
Professional Politics, 342
Power in the City, 342
Contemporary Fragmentation in the Metropolis, 345
Increasing Fragmentation, 345
A Positive View of Metropolitan Fragmentation, 347
Fiscal Disparities, 349
Technology and Urban Geography Box 12.2, 350
Countering the Fragmented Metropolis, 353
Annexations, 353
Elastic Cities, 353
City-County Consolidation, 356
Metropolitan Government, 356
Box 12.3, 357
Wrapping Up, 358
Readings, 358
13. Planning The Better City, 360
Making the Case for Planning, 361
Aesthetics, 361
Efficiency, 362
Social Equity Planning, 364
Maintaining Property Values, 366
Environmental Protection, 367
Development of Modern Planning, 368
Visionaries and the Urban Ideal, 368
Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City Movement, 368
Le Corbusier’s City of Towers, 370
Frank Lloyd Wright’s Broadacre City, 371
Legal Basis for Planning, 371
Box 13.1, 374
Growth of Planning as a Profession in the United States, 374
Political Nature of Planning, 377
Box 13.2, 379
Comprehensive Plans and Tools of Modern Planning, 380
Elements and Steps in Comprehensive Plan Development, 380
Technology and Urban Geography Box 13.3, 382
Zoning, 384
Problems with Zoning and Responses, 387
Effect of Zoning on Community, 387
Exclusionary Zoning of Class and Race, 390
Growth Management, 392
Wrapping Up, 393
Readings, 394
14. Cities In The Developed World, 395
Western European Cities, 395
Urbanization and the European City System, 396
Characteristic Features of European Cities, 398
Density and Compactness, 398
Historical Legacy, 401
Box 14.1, 402
Box 14.2, 406
Housing and Social Geography, 407
Aspects of Change, 410
Changing Economic Circumstances, 411
Changes in the Political and Cultural Milieu, 412
Cities in Post-Communist Eastern Europe, 414
Communist Urban Development, 414
Post-Communist Development, 416
Box 14.3, 417
Cities in Japan, 418
Structure of Japanese Cities, 419
Technology and Urban Geography Box 14.4, 421
Changes in Japanese Cities, 422
Wrapping Up, 423
Readings, 423
15. Cities In The Less Developed World, 425
The New Urban Majority, 426
How the Cities Have Grown, 426
Demographic Factors Involved in Urban Growth, 429
Natural Increase, 429
Urbanization Curve, 429
Primacy, 430
Box 15.1, 431
Origins of Third World Urbanization, 432
Modernization Perspective, 433
Technology and Urban Geography Box 15.2, 435
International Political Economy Perspective, 435
Colonialism, 436
Economic Disparity, 438
Urban Bias, 440
Characteristics of Third World Cities, 441
Effects of Growth, 442
Housing, 443
Public-Sector Housing, 444
Box 15.3, 446
Commercial Private-Sector Housing, 447
Self-Help Housing, 448
Employment Opportunities and the Informal Sector, 449
Formal Sector, 450
Informal Sector, 451
Wrapping Up, 452
Readings, 453
16. Regional Variations In Urban Structure and Form In The Less Developed World, 455
The Latin American City, 456
Colonial Legacies, 457
Modern Latin American Cities, 458
Themes of City Life, 458
Spatial Layout, 461
Sub-Saharan African Cities, 463
Indigenous Influences, 464
European Intervention, 465
Box 16.1, 466
Modern African Cities, 468
South Asian Cities, 469
A Typology of South Asian Cities, 470
Modern Challenges, 472
Technology and Urban Geography Box 16.2, 474
Southeast Asian Cities, 476
Indigenous Influences: Sacred and Market Cities, 477
The Colonial City in Southeast Asia, 478
Locational Aspects, 479
The Dualistic Form of the City, 480
Chinese Population, 480
Modern Cities, 482
Problems of Development, 482
Prosperity and Urban Form, 483
Wrapping Up, 484
Box 16.3, 485
Box 16.4, 486
Readings, 486
Index, 489
Credits, 507
Photo Credits, 511

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