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Copyright, iv
About the Author, vi
Preface, xiii
Chapter 1. Thinking Critically With Psychological Science, xxx
What Is Psychology?, 2
Psychology’s Roots, 2
Contemporary Psychology, 5
Why Do Psychology?, 9
What About Intuition and Common Sense?, 10
The Scientific Attitude, 12
Critical Thinking, 13
How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?, 14
The Scientific Method, 14
Description, 15
Correlation, 18
Experimentation, 22
Frequently Asked Questions About Psychology, 25
Tips for Studying Psychology, 29
Chapter 2. Neuroscience and Behavior, 34
Neural Communication, 35
Neurons, 36
How Neurons Communicate, 37
How Neurotransmitters Influence Us, 38
The Nervous System, 41
The Peripheral Nervous System, 41
The Central Nervous System, 42
The Endocrine System, 44
The Brain, 45
Older Brain Structures, 45
Close-Up: The Tools of Discovery, 46
The Cerebral Cortex, 52
Our Divided Brain, 59
Studying Hemispheric Differences in the Intact Brain, 62
Chapter 3. Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity, 66
Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences, 67
Genes: Our Codes for Life, 67
Twin and Adoption Studies, 68
Temperament and Heredity, 72
Nature and Nurture, 72
Gene-Environment Interaction, 73
Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding Human Nature, 74
Natural Selection, 74
An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality, 76
Parents and Peers, 79
Parents and Early Experiences, 79
Peer Influence, 81
Cultural Influences, 82
Variation Across Cultures, 83
Variation Over Time, 84
Culture and the Self, 84
Culture and Child-Rearing, 86
Developmental Similarities Across Groups, 87
Gender Development, 88
Gender Similarities and Differences, 88
The Nature of Gender, 90
The Nurture of Gender, 91
Reflections on Nature and Nurture, 93
Chapter 4. Developing Through the Life Span, 98
Prenatal Development and the Newborn, 99
Conception, 99
Prenatal Development, 100
The Competent Newborn, 101
Infancy and Childhood, 102
Physical Development, 102
Cognitive Development, 104
Close-Up: Autism and “Mind-Blindness”, 109
Social Development, 110
Adolescence, 116
Physical Development, 116
Cognitive Development, 118
Social Development, 120
Emerging Adulthood, 122
Adulthood, 123
Physical Development, 123
Cognitive Development, 126
Social Development, 129
Reflections on Two Major Developmental Issues, 134
Continuity and Stages, 134
Stability and Change, 134
Chapter 5. Sensation and Perception, 138
Sensing the World: Some Basic Principles, 140
Thresholds, 140
Sensory Adaptation, 142
Vision, 143
The Stimulus Input: Light Energy, 144
The Eye, 144
Visual Information Processing, 147
Color Vision, 150
The Other Senses, 151
Hearing, 151
Touch, 154
Pain, 155
Taste, 158
Smell, 160
Body Position and Movement, 161
Perceptual Organization, 162
Form Perception, 163
Depth Perception, 165
Perceptual Constancy, 167
Perceptual Interpretation, 170
Sensory Deprivation and Restored Vision, 170
Perceptual Adaptation, 172
Perceptual Set, 173
Thinking Critically About: Extrasensory Perception, 176
Chapter 6. States of Consciousness, 182
Waking Consciousness, 183
Selective Attention, 184
Levels of Information Processing, 185
Sleep and Dreams, 186
Biological Rhythms and Sleep, 186
Why Do We Sleep?, 191
Sleep Disorders, 194
Dreams, 196
Hypnosis, 200
Facts and Falsehoods, 200
Explaining the Hypnotized State, 202
Drugs and Consciousness, 204
Dependence and Addiction, 204
Psychoactive Drugs, 205
Influences on Drug Use, 213
Chapter 7. Learning, 220
How Do We Learn?, 221
Classical Conditioning, 223
Pavlov’s Experiments, 223
Extending Pavlov’s Understanding, 227
Pavlov’s Legacy, 230
Operant Conditioning, 232
Skinner’s Experiments, 232
Extending Skinner’s Understanding, 238
Skinner’s Legacy, 240
Close-Up: Training Our Mates, 242
Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning, 242
Learning by Observation, 244
Bandura’s Experiments, 245
Applications of Observational Learning, 246
Chapter 8. Memory, 252
The Phenomenon of Memory, 253
Studying Memory: Information-Processing Models, 254
Encoding: Getting Information In, 255
How We Encode, 255
What We Encode, 257
Storage: Retaining Information, 261
Sensory Memory, 261
Working/Short-Term Memory, 261
Long-Term Memory, 262
Storing Memories in the Brain, 263
Retrieval: Getting Information Out, 268
Retrieval Cues, 268
Forgetting, 272
Encoding Failure, 272
Storage Decay, 273
Retrieval Failure, 274
Close-Up: Retrieving Passwords, 275
Memory Construction, 277
Misinformation and Imagination Effects, 278
Source Amnesia, 280
Children’s Eyewitness Recall, 280
Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse?, 281
Improving Memory, 284
Chapter 9. Thinking, Language, and Intelligence, 288
Thinking, 289
Concepts, 289
Solving Problems, 290
Making Decisions and Forming Judgments, 292
Thinking Critically About: The Fear Factor—Do We Fear the Right Things?, 296
Language, 299
Language Development, 299
Thinking and Language, 303
Animal Thinking and Language, 307
Intelligence, 310
What Is Intelligence?, 310
Theories of Intelligence, 310
Assessing Intelligence, 315
Close-Up: Extremes of Intelligence, 318
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence, 320
Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores, 324
Chapter 10. Motivation, 334
Motivational Concepts, 335
Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology, 336
Drives and Incentives, 336
Optimum Arousal, 337
A Hierarchy of Motives, 337
Hunger, 338
The Physiology of Hunger, 339
The Psychology of Hunger, 341
Close-Up: Eating Disorders, 342
Obesity and Weight Control, 344
Close-Up: For Those Who Want to Lose Weight, 350
Sexual Motivation, 351
The Physiology of Sex, 351
The Psychology of Sex, 353
Adolescent Sexuality, 354
Sexual Orientation, 356
Sex and Human Values, 362
The Need to Belong, 363
Achievement Motivation, 366
Identifying Achievement Motivation, 366
Sources of Achievement Motivation, 367
Chapter 11. Emotions, Stress, and Health, 370
Theories of Emotion, 371
Embodied Emotion, 373
Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System, 373
Physiological Similarities Among Specific Emotions, 375
Physiological Differences Among Specific Emotions, 375
Thinking Critically About: Lie Detection, 376
Cognition and Emotion, 377
Expressed Emotion, 380
Detecting Emotion, 380
Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior, 381
Culture and Emotional Expression, 383
The Effects of Facial Expressions, 385
Experienced Emotion, 386
Anger, 387
Happiness, 388
Close-Up: How to Be Happier, 395
Stress and Health, 396
Stress and Stressors, 396
Stress and the Heart, 400
Stress and Susceptibility to Disease, 402
Promoting Health, 405
Coping With Stress, 406
Close-Up: Pets Are Friends, Too, 409
Managing Stress Effects, 409
Thinking Critically About: Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 412
Chapter 12. Personality, 420
The Psychoanalytic Perspective, 422
Exploring the Unconscious, 422
The Neo-Freudian and Psychodynamic Theorists, 426
Assessing Unconscious Processes, 427
Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective, 428
The Humanistic Perspective, 432
Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualizing Person, 432
Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Perspective, 432
Assessing the Self, 433
Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective, 433
The Trait Perspective, 435
Exploring Traits, 435
Assessing Traits, 437
The Big Five Factors, 438
Evaluating the Trait Perspective, 439
Thinking Critically About: How to Be a “Successful” Astrologer or Palm Reader, 440
The Social-Cognitive Perspective, 443
Reciprocal Influences, 443
Personal Control, 445
Close-Up: Toward a More Positive Psychology, 448
Assessing Behavior in Situations, 449
Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective, 450
Exploring the Self, 450
The Benefits of Self-Esteem, 451
Culture and Self-Esteem, 452
Self-Serving Bias, 452
Chapter 13. Psychological Disorders, 458
Perspectives on Psychological Disorders, 459
Defining Psychological Disorders, 459
Understanding Psychological Disorders, 460
Thinking Critically About: ADHD—Normal High Energy or Genuine Disorder?, 461
Classifying Psychological Disorders, 462
Labeling Psychological Disorders, 463
Close-Up: The “un-DSM”: A Diagnostic Manual of Human Strengths, 464
Thinking Critically About: Insanity and Responsibility, 465
Anxiety Disorders, 466
Generalized Anxiety Disorder, 466
Panic Disorder, 467
Phobias, 467
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, 468
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, 469
Explaining Anxiety Disorders, 470
Dissociative and Personality Disorders, 472
Dissociative Disorders, 472
Personality Disorders, 474
Mood Disorders, 476
Major Depressive Disorder, 476
Bipolar Disorder, 477
Explaining Mood Disorders, 478
Close-Up: Suicide, 480
Schizophrenia, 485
Symptoms of Schizophrenia, 485
Onset and Development of Schizophrenia, 487
Understanding Schizophrenia, 487
Rates of Psychological Disorders, 491
Chapter 14. Therapy, 496
The Psychological Therapies, 498
Psychoanalysis, 498
Humanistic Therapies, 500
Behavior Therapies, 502
Cognitive Therapies, 506
Group and Family Therapies, 508
Evaluating Psychotherapies, 509
Is Psychotherapy Effective?, 509
The Relative Effectiveness of Different Therapies, 512
Evaluating Alternative Therapies, 513
Commonalities Among Psychotherapies, 514
Culture and Values in Psychotherapy, 516
Close-Up: A Consumer’s Guide to Psychotherapists, 517
The Biomedical Therapies, 518
Drug Therapies, 518
Brain Stimulation, 521
Psychosurgery, 523
Preventing Psychological Disorders, 524
Chapter 15. Social Psychology, 528
Social Thinking, 529
Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations, 529
Attitudes and Actions, 531
Close-Up: Abu Ghraib Prison: An “Atrocity-Producing Situation”?, 534
Social Influence, 535
Conformity and Obedience, 535
Group Influence, 541
Social Relations, 545
Prejudice, 545
Close-Up: Automatic Prejudice, 547
Aggression, 551
Thinking Critically About: Do Video Games Teach, or Release, Violence?, 556
Close-Up: Parallels Between Smoking Effects and Media Violence Effects, 558
Attraction, 559
Altruism, 564
Conflict and Peacemaking, 566
Appendix A. Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life, A-1
Describing Data, A-1
Measures of Central Tendency, A-1
Measures of Variation, A-3
Correlation: A Measure of Relationships, A-4
Making Inferences, A-7
When Is a Difference Reliable?, A-7
Close-Up: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies, A-8
When Is a Difference Significant?, A-8
Appendix B. Psychology at Work, B-1
Personnel Psychology, B-2
Harnessing Strengths, B-2
Close-Up: I/O Psychology at Work, B-3
Close-Up: Discovering Your Strengths, B-4
Do Interviews Predict Performance?, B-4
Appraising Performance, B-5
Organizational Psychology, B-6
Satisfaction and Engagement, B-7
Managing Well, B-8
Perception and the Human Factor, B-11
Appendix C. Careers in Psychology, C-1
Preparing for a Career in Psychology, C-1
The Bachelor’s Degree, C-1
Postgraduate Degrees, C-2
Subfields of Psychology, C-4
Preparing Early for Graduate Study in Psychology, C-8
For More Information, C-9
Appendix D. Answers to Test Yourself, D-1
Glossary, G-1
References, R-1
Name Index, N-1
Subject Index, S-1

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