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Copyright, ii
Preface, ix
Chapter 1. Introduction to Global Climate Change, 1
Climate, 3
Current State of Affairs, 5
Telltale Signs, 8
In the Course of Human Events, 8
Summary, 10
Chapter 2. History of Earth’s Climate, 13
CO₂ Reactions and Climate, 14
In the Beginning..., 15
Isotopic Measures, 17
Definitions, 17
The Past Billion Years, 22
The Cambrian Explosion, 23
Paleomagnetism, 24
The Ordovician–Silurian Extinction Event, 25
A Landmark Event, 26
The Age of Dinosaurs, 28
Recent Geological History, 30
The Past Million Years, 32
The Past Millennium, 33
Tree rings, 34
Corals, 35
Glacier length, 37
Boreholes, 37
Ice cores, 38
Direct measurements, 38
Sea Level, 38
Stormy Weather, 40
Self Control, 41
Summary, 43
Chapter 3. Causes of Climate, 45
External Forcing Factors, 46
Galactic variations, 46
Orbital variations, 46
Sunspots, 53
Internal Forcing Factors, 54
Orogeny, 54
Epeirogeny, 55
Volcanism, 55
Albedo, 55
Atmospheric composition, 55
Clouds, 65
Ocean currents, 67
Storms, 70
Summary, 72
Chapter 4. World of Tomorrow: Computer Simulation Models, 75
General Circulation Models, 77
General Circulation Models: Core Concepts, 79
Forcing Factors and Emission Scenarios, 84
Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases, 85
Carbon dioxide, 85
Methane, 87
Ozone, 89
Nitrous oxide, 91
Chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons, 91
Testing Global Climate Models, 93
Anthropogenic Forcing Factors, 94
Future World, 97
Temperatures and albedo, 97
Sea ice and sea level, 98
Precipitation, 98
Ocean acidification, 99
Stormy weather, 100
Forest fires, 100
Warming Momentum, 101
Summary, 101
Chapter 5. Biological Impacts of Higher Carbon Dioxide Concentrations, 105
Rising Carbon Dioxide and Declining Oxygen, 106
Direct Effects of Carbon Dioxide on Plants, 107
Resource triangle, 107
Energy (carbon or light) and plants, 108
C₄ carbon fixation, 110
C₃ versus C₄: Why should you care?, 111
Water and plants, 112
Crassulacean acid metabolism, 113
Water-use efficiency, 114
Growth systems and statistical analysis, 115
Plant responses to elevated CO₂ atmospheres, 116
CO₂ acclimation, 117
Nitrogen nutrition of plants, 119
Nitrogen and plant responses to elevated CO₂, 122
Bloom’s hypothesis, 124
Food quality, 126
Carbon Dioxide Sensing, 128
Summary, 130
Chapter 6. Climate Change and The Biosphere, 133
Temperature, 134
Polar bears, 136
Penguins, 138
Baleen whales, 139
Other Organisms, 143
Birds, 143
Wine grapes, 144
Coral reefs, 145
Amphibians, 146
Human pathogens, 147
Soil microorganisms and biogeochemistry, 149
Humans and heat, 150
Precipitation, 152
Food production, 152
Salinity, 156
pH: Acid–Base, 158
Conformation of biochemicals, 158
Energy storage, 158
Inorganic compounds and pH, 159
Global change and pH, 160
Perspective, 161
Summary, 161
Chapter 7. Mitigation Strategies: Transportation, 165
Energy Conservation, 166
Transportation, 168
Efficiency of light-duty vehicles, 170
Public Transport and Energy Conservation, 183
Alternative Fuels for Transportation, 184
Natural gas, 185
Hydrogen, 186
Electric and hybrid vehicles, 191
Biofuels, 193
Summary, 203
Chapter 8. Mitigation Strategies: Electric Power Generation, 205
Industrial Power, 206
Coal-Fired Power Plants, 208
Natural Gas, 211
Carbon Capture and Storage, 212
CO₂ capture, 212
Concentrating CO₂, 215
CO₂ transport, 215
CO₂ storage, 216
Summary of CO₂ capture and storage methods, 221
Nuclear Power Plants, 221
Renewable Energy Sources, 224
Hydroelectric, 225
Wind, 228
Solar, 233
Geothermal, 238
Tidal and wave, 242
Summary, 243
Chapter 9. Mitigation Strategies: Other Sectors, 247
Agriculture and Forestry, 248
Agriculture, 248
Forestry, 254
Industrial Sector, 254
Motors, 255
Steam heat, 256
Industry-specific technologies, 257
Commercial and Residential Buildings, 260
Space heating and cooling, 260
Hot water, 264
Lighting, 265
Appliances, 269
Inner space, 270
Geoengineering, 271
Global dimming, 271
Fertilizing oceans, 272
Summary of geoengineering, 274
Summary, 274
Chapter 10. Economics of Global Climate Change, 277
Market Forces, 278
Definitions, 278
Governmental policies, 280
Failure of Market Forces, 281
National interests, 282
Monopolies or cartels, 282
Free goods and services, 287
Lack of information, 289
Multigenerational time scales, 289
Free market forces and climate change: a summary, 290
Costs versus Benefits, 290
Improving accuracy, 290
Intangible benefits, 293
Uncertainty, 299
Distributional issues, 304
Economic Models, 306
Nordhaus versus Stern, 306
Appropriate policies, 307
Summary, 308
Chapter 11. Global Climate Change and The Law, 311
Public International Law, 312
Enactment and interpretation, 312
Compliance and enforcement, 317
Treaties, 319
The United Nations Law of the Sea, 319
Substances that deplete the ozone layer, 322
Global climate change, 324
Effectiveness of the Law of the Sea Convention versus Montreal versus Kyoto, 328
Regional Governments and Nongovernmental Organizations, 331
The United States, 331
Other countries, 332
Nongovernmental organizations, 332
Summary, 333
Chapter 12. Global Climate Change: The Human Response, 337
Public Awareness of Climate Change, 338
Societal Factors and Global Climate Change, 341
National origin, 341
Education, gender, race, income, and age, 343
Religion, 343
Public Relations, 345
Civilizations and the Environment, 345
Sources of Optimism, 346
Everybody talks about weather, 346
Human population growth abates, 347
Global education levels increase, 348
Technology advances, 348
Final Words, 348
Summary, 349
Appendix, 351
Answers to Review Questions, 354
Glossary, 356
References, 361
Index, 384
Illustration Credits, 396

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